Clifford Denton discusses the origins of 'Replacement Theology' and its impacts on Christian thinking.

So far in this series, we have seen how Christianity's Hebraic heritage came under attack right from the first years after Jesus and his apostles, and we have considered how this attack developed up to the fall of Israel under Rome. By this point, the ground had been prepared for the Christian Church to move away from its roots even further as time went on, and as theological ideas developed that denied its links with Israel and the Jews.

Blessings but no Curses

This eventually led many Christians to consider that God had now finished with Israel and replaced it with a new body called the Church, which would receive all the covenant blessings promised to Israel but without fear of the curses. In this study we will review the ideas behind this 'Replacement Theology' and consider its origins.

Christians and Jews eventually became so separated that many Christians began to consider themselves Israel's replacement in God's eyes.

70 AD: Judgment Day?

When Israel fell under the Romans, it became possible for Christians in the Gentile world to declare this as the final judgment of God on the Jewish nation. They could argue that Jesus had offered the gift of salvation to all of Israel and, following this, the early Apostles had witnessed to his sacrificial death and resurrection for sufficient time to give the nation its full opportunity for repentance.

To witness the terrible fate of Israel under Rome and then the dispersion of Jews to foreign lands would seem adequate evidence for this view. Add to this the Greek philosophical mindset prevalent among Gentile communities (more on this next week), and the scriptures themselves could be re-interpreted as if God had turned his attention to a people who had long been neglected and whose time had now come.

'Natural Israel' becomes 'Spiritual Israel'

Thus the idea that Israel was now to be replaced by a new body was established. The idea of 'Spiritual Israel' replacing 'natural Israel' began to take hold, so that even Old Testament mentions of Israel were re-interpreted by some Christian theologians in terms of the Church in the Gentile world, except that Jesus had now taken away the curse of the law, leaving only blessings for 'the Church'.

When Israel fell under the Romans, Gentile Christians declared this the final judgment of God on the Jewish nation. The idea that 'natural' Israel was now to be replaced by 'spiritual' Israel took hold.

With this view, Galatians 3:10-14 can be taken out of context:

Christ has redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us (for it is written, 'Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree'), that the blessing of Abraham might come upon the Gentiles in Christ Jesus, that we might receive the promise of the Spirit through faith. (Gal 3:13-14)

Also, taking a single verse out of context, Matthew 21:43 could be (wrongly) interpreted as saying that now the 'nation' that was to replace Israel was this new body of people drawn from the Gentile world and known as 'the Church':

Therefore I tell you that the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a people who will produce its fruit. (Matt 21:43)

With this mindset, even Romans 11 (where Paul speaks of a remnant of Israel being saved) can be re-interpreted as fulfilled by the early disciples and so no longer relevant. Paul speaks of himself as being of the tribe of Israel, seemingly confirming his point that God had not forgotten individuals from Israel - providing they become 'Christians' (and of course there were many other Jews who did believe in Jesus at the time of Paul). Thus a view can be formed that God did not forget his people in confirmation of Romans 11:1-5, but fulfilled it in Paul's day.

For those who see a new body ('the Church') as replacing Israel, the grafting of Romans 11 becomes about grafting into the new, predominantly Gentile Church, rather than into the covenant family that existed before the call to the Gentiles.

Christ the End of the Law

Romans 10:4 can also be read in terms of Replacement Theology, seeing 'end' as 'put an end to':

For Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to everyone who believes.

However, this verse means that those who look forward to the coming Messiah (as Abraham, Isaac and Jacob did) perceive him as fulfilling the purposes of the Covenant given to Israel. He is in view as through a telescope. He is the end purpose of the Torah, its fulfilment, within the continuity of biblical history.

Christ is the end of the law not because he finishes it, but because he fulfils it.

Those who have adopted the mindset that a new body has replaced Israel read this Scripture as meaning that Jesus Christ put an end to the promise to Israel in order to begin a new thing, rather than to enable, through his sacrificial death, the promise to Abraham. If, again, the 'New Covenant' is seen as a complete replacement of the 'Old Covenant', in every way, then this also adds to the theory that Israel has been replaced by a new thing: 'the Church'.

Already-existing Body

The truth is that Gentiles were called into an already-existing body, by the same faith that Abraham and all his children have.

However, errors emerge when Scripture is read through biased mindsets and false pre-conceptions that have formed in the Christian Church. It is all too easy to take this position, especially if we do not develop a balanced view from the whole of Scripture. In turn, Replacement Theology fuels anti-Semitism if it is thought that God's will is to punish the Jews.

Replacement Theology is rampant and widely accepted in the Church today but its traditions, thought patterns and logics began long ago. We will consider this in the next study, quoting briefly from the writings of two of the 'Church Fathers', Justin Martyr and Origen, to illustrate the point.

Gentiles are called into an already-existing body, by the same faith that Abraham had.

For Reflection and Comment

Read the scriptures referenced in this study, with the mindset of inclusion of believing Gentiles into the Israel of God, rather than a rejection of Israel and total replacement of Israel with an entirely new community of faith. Note the wording of Jeremiah 31:27-37.

Can you find scriptures to correct the error of Replacement Theology that the Church inherits all Israel's blessings and none of its curses?

Next time: Replacement Theology Part 2.

Clifford Denton looks at the growing distinction between Jewish and Christian communities in the first century AD, and the Roman persecution which propelled it.

In the last few studies we have reviewed the initial factors that disturbed the unity of the early Christian Church from its Hebraic heritage. This week we will consider how the parting of the ways was effected by the middle of the second century.

Recap

In Our Father Abraham, Dr Marvin Wilson summarises the factors that led to the early separation of the Christian Church from its Jewish roots:

• There was inevitable tension over the proclamation that Jesus was the expected Messiah, both in terms of Messianic expectation and of theological interpretation.
• Though one has to deal carefully with the reaction of the Synagogue, it seems wise to conclude that at first, there was only general resistance to Christians from this quarter, rather than total exclusion.
• The rising alternative Messianic expectations in the Jewish Revolts brought another element to separation. Followers of Jesus did not form an alliance with those in revolt against Rome, and so were further alienated from the general Jewish community.
• Meanwhile, the failure of the revolts brought catastrophe to the Jewish nation, the fall of the Temple and of the city of Jerusalem, the Diaspora, the rise of the Synagogues and the move to codify the Oral traditions and consolidate Judaism. Both Church and Synagogue were contributing to their parting of ways.

Understanding this early divergence and the separation which followed is not just a useful history lesson. It helps us to understand even the current situation relating to Christianity and Judaism - not so much to allocate blame, but to better appreciate what needs to be repaired in their relationship.

1st Century Jews and Christians differed because of their theologies, their Messianic expectations and the fallout from the Jewish revolts.

Growing Diversion

Clues to the degree of separation between the Christian Church and the Synagogue can be pieced together from available historical evidence. For example, a comment is made by the Roman historian Suetonius concerning a dispute between Jews and Jewish Christians in Rome in 49 AD. Claudius expelled both groups as if there were no distinction between them:

He banished from Rome all the Jews, who were continually making disturbances at the instigation of one Christus. (From Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonias. Available as a Wordsworth Classic, 1997)

However, by the time of Nero in 64 AD, there was a distinction between Christians and Jews - and it was the Christians who were blamed by Nero for the burning of Rome. The Emperor NeroRoman historian Tacitus discusses this in his Annals of Imperial Rome. Following a description of a night of debauchery involving Nero we read:

Disaster followed. Whether it was accidental or caused by criminal act on the part of the emperor is uncertain – both versions have supporters. Now started the most terrible and destructive fire which Rome has ever experienced. It began in the Circus, where it adjoins the Palentine and Caelian hills. Breaking out in shops selling inflammable goods, and fanned by the wind, the conflagration instantly grew and swept the whole length of the Circus...First, the fire swept violently over the level spaces. Then it climbed the hills...

Terrified, shrieking women, helpless old and young, people intent on their own safety, people unselfishly supporting invalids or waiting for them, fugitives and lingerers alike – all heightened the confusion. When people looked back, menacing flames sprang up before them or outflanked them. When they escaped to a neighbouring quarter, the fire followed – even districts believed to be remote proved to be involved...

The fire raged for several days and only four of Rome's fourteen districts remained intact. Nero looked for a scapegoat. Tacitus describes this clearly:

...neither human resources, nor imperial munificence, nor appeasement of the gods, eliminated sinister suspicions that the fire had been instigated. To suppress rumour, Nero fabricated scapegoats – and punished with every refinement the notoriously depraved Christians (as they were popularly called). Their originator, Christ, had been executed in Tiberius' reign by the governor of Judaea, Pontius Pilatus. But in spite of this temporary setback the deadly superstition had broken out afresh, not only in Judaea (where the mischief had started) but even in Rome. All degraded and shameful practices collect and flourish in the capital.

First, Nero had self-acknowledged Christians arrested. Then, on their information, large numbers of others were condemned – not so much for incendiarism as for their anti-social tendencies. Their deaths were made farcical. Dressed in wild animals' skins, they were torn to pieces by dogs, or crucified, or made into torches to be ignited after dark as substitutes for daylight. Nero provided his Gardens for the spectacle, and exhibited displays in the Circus, at which he mingled with the crowd – or stood in a chariot, dressed as a charioteer. Despite their guilt as Christians, and the ruthless punishment it deserved, the victims were pitied. For it was felt that they were being sacrificed to one man's brutality rather than to the national interest. [emphases added]

Thus, from descriptions of the flow of history we find that observers have given us evidence as to the timing of the separation between Jewish and Christian communities. Between the middle and end of the first century, this separation was becoming more noticeable – Jews and Christians were treated as two distinct groups. We now turn to another clue which will help us understand their growing divergence.

By the end of the first century AD, Jews and Christians were being treated as two separate communities.

From Sabbath to Sunday

In his extensive analysis, From Sabbath to Sunday (Pontifical Gregorian University Press, Rome, 1977), Samuele Bacchiocchi traces the details of when Christian celebrations of the Sabbath became Sunday meetings. This is a major clue to how far the Church had become separated from the Jewish community. His analysis confirms the view given by Wilson in Our Father Abraham that by the time of Justin Martyr (around 160 AD), "the parting of the way seems to be largely finalized" (p83).

Bacchiocchi notes that early Christians celebrated the Sabbath in the tradition of Judaism:

...analysis of the New Testament sources regarding the Jerusalem Church has firmly established that the primitive Christian community there was composed primarily of and administered by converted Jews who retained a deep attachment to Jewish religious customs such as Sabbath-keeping. It is therefore impossible to assume that a new day of worship was introduced by the Jerusalem Church prior to the destruction of the city in A.D. 70. We might add that in view of the enormous influence exerted on the Church at large by the Jewish Christian leadership and membership, it would have been practically impossible for any Church anywhere to introduce Sunday observance prior to A.D. 70. W.D. Davies, a well-recognized specialist on early Christianity, concisely and sagaciously summarizes the religious situation at the time:

'Everywhere, especially in the East of the Roman Empire, there would be Jewish Christians whose outward way of life would not be markedly different from that of the Jews. They took it for granted that the gospel was continuous with Judaism; for them the new covenant, which Jesus had set up at the Last Supper with his disciples and sealed by his death, did not mean that the covenant made between God and Israel was no longer in force. They still observed the feasts of Passover, Pentecost and Tabernacles; they also continued to be circumcised, to keep the weekly Sabbath and the Mosaic regulations concerning food. According to some scholars, they must have been so strong that right up to the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 they were the dominant element in the Christian movement.' (p151, with a quote from WD Davies, Paul and Jewish Christianity, 1972. Emphases added)

Even up to 135 AD, despite the flight to Pella by Christians after the fall of Jerusalem, there is evidence of continued observance of the Jewish traditions among those in the Jerusalem congregations. Yet, various other factors gradually eroded this adherence to biblical custom. This seems particularly to be the case when Gentiles came to be the majority in the Christian Church and when congregations developed outside of the Land of Israel.

Bacchiocchi identifies trends in this way with the Church in Rome. We have rehearsed some of the historical factors regarding Christians and Jews in both Israel and Rome and the various pressures that were evident on these communities. Bacchiocchi concludes:

The introduction of Sunday worship in place of "Jewish" Sabbath-keeping- the latter being particularly derided by several Roman writers of the time – could well represent a measure taken by the leaders of the Church of Rome to evidence their severance from Judaism and thereby also avoid the payment of a discriminatory tax. (p173)

Christian Anti-Judaism

Bacchiocchi also identifies a broad range of Christian writers who wrote against the Jews in the second century:

...how different at that time was the attitude of many Christian writers towards the Jews! A whole body of anti-Judaic literature was produced in the second century condemning the Jews socially and theologically...

...The following list of significant authors and/or writings which defamed the Jews to a lesser or greater degree may serve to make the reader aware of the existence and intensity of the problem: 'The Preaching of Peter', 'The Epistle of Barnabus', Quadratus' lost 'Apology', Aristides' 'Apology', 'The Disputation between Jason and Papiscus concerning Christ', Justin's 'Dialogue with Trypho', Miltiades' 'Against the Jews' (unfortunately lost), Apollinarius' 'Against the Jews' (also perished), Melito's 'On the Passover', 'The Epistle to Diognetus', 'The Gospel of Peter', Tertullian's 'Against the Jews', Origen's 'Against Celsus'. (p179)

Justin, in particular, is singled out to demonstrate the issue:

The Sabbath to Justin is a temporary ordinance, derived from Moses, which God did not intend to be kept literally, for He Himself "does not stop controlling the movement of the universe on that day." He imposed it solely on the Jews as "a mark to single them out for punishment they so well deserved for their infidelities." The acceptance of this thesis makes God guilty, to say the least, of discriminatory practices, inasmuch as He would have given ordinances for the sole negative purpose of singling out the Jews for punishment.

Thus we can trace the general trend of Church leaders in the Gentile world, particularly in Rome, to react against their Jewish roots and to demonstrate this through ignoring the Sabbath day. This in turn led to Christians distinguishing themselves by meeting on the first day of the week instead. This was very clear by the middle of the second century.

The general trend amongst Church leaders in the Gentile world, and particularly in Rome, was to react against their Jewish roots.

Summary

In the years in which we now live, distant from the beginning of the new movement in the world of Judaism that came to be called Christianity, both Jews and Christians are looking back to discover how their ways parted. David Flusser, an eminent scholar of Judaism and the origins of Christianity, confirms the view that we have considered in this study:

The Jewish origin of Christianity is an historical fact. It is also clear that Christianity constituted a new community, distinct from Judaism. Thus, Christianity is in the peculiar position of being a religion which, because of its Jewish roots, is obliged to be occupied with Judaism, while a Jew can live his Jewish religious life without wrestling with the problems of Christianity.

From its very beginnings, Christianity understood itself more or less as the heir of Judaism and as its true expression, at the same time that it knew itself to have come into existence through the special grace of Christ. As the vast majority of Jews did not agree with their Christian brethren in this claim, Christianity became a religion of Gentiles to whom, from the second century on, it was forbidden to fulfill the commandments of the Law of Moses – a book which was, at the same time, a part of their Holy Scriptures.

Already then the majority of Christians thought that the Jewish way of life was forbidden even to those Jews who had embraced Christianity, an attitude which later became official in the Church. While anti-Semitism existed before Christianity, Christian anti-Judaism was far more virulent and dangerous. The latter rejected most of the motifs of Greco-Roman anti-Semitism, as these were used also against Christians, but invented new arguments. Most of these existed as early as the first century – some of them have their own roots already in the New Testament – and by the second century we can recognize more or less clearly the whole direction of Christian anti-Judaism. (pp617-618, Origins of Christianity, Magnes Press, 1988, emphases added)

The consequences of Christianity's severance from its roots are apparent not just in differences in community lifestyle but also in the bad fruit of anti-Semitism and anti-Judaism. This can be tracked back to the early days of the Christian Church in Jerusalem, gradually strengthening to a parting of the ways by the mid-second century. Wilson puts it this way in Our Father Abraham:

Although a few Jewish Christians apparently still attended synagogue in Jerome's day (ca. A.D. 400), the parting of the way seems to have been finalized by around the middle of the second century. By the time of Justin Martyr (ca. A.D. 160) a new attitude prevailed in the Church, evidenced by it appropriating the title "Israel" for itself. Until that time the Church had defined itself more in terms of continuity with the Jewish people; that is, it was an extension of Israel. (p83)

For Reflection and Comment

What can Christians do, without compromising the Gospel message, to restore the perception that disciples of Jesus are joined to the Israel of God?

Next time: Replacement Theology.

'The Secular Terrorist: The Slow Suicide of Christian Britain', by Peter Mullen (RoperPenberthy, 2012, 189 pages, available from the publisher for £9.99)

This is an interesting if disturbing read on a familiar theme: the decline of Christianity and Christian values in Britain. The author's experience as rector of Anglican churches in London, together with his keen observation of society in general, means he is well informed. Moreover, he believes the situation is so dire that he is prepared to speak out strongly, in some cases very strongly, hence his choice of words for the title.

Moral reversal

Mullen examines all the usual areas of concern, starting with sexual morals, abortion, embryo research, and family breakdown. His main contention here, as elsewhere, is that over time, through a slow but steady series of incremental changes, humanistic values and secularism have transformed society until an almost complete reversal has occurred. Utilitarianism now dominates our thinking and consumerism our lifestyles.

He contends that the denial of our Christian roots has produced a slow suicide. We have been beaten by losing faith in what we believed. Secularisation is the hidden terrorist in our midst, creating impotence and encouraging self-doubt. Cultural and social defeat was "guaranteed once Christianity had died in the soul of Western man" (p119). The author maintains that only the re-discovery of our Judaeo-Christian heritage will save Western society. What is needed is "nothing less than a return to the practice of our faith" (p9).

Mullen contends that Britain's slow demise is due to our loss of faith, with secularisation the hidden terrorist in our midst.

Moreover, he believes that we "shall not turn again to God until we are overwhelmed and perhaps almost annihilated by some great catastrophe" (p180), and not one that we can blame upon God for: we will have brought it upon ourselves, as has happened repeatedly throughout history. Israel's desertion and repeated disobedience brought disasters. We cannot expect to be an exception to this pattern in the human/Divine story.

The problem with political correctness

In a strong section of the book full of good examples, Mullen vigorously attacks political correctness as a key component of the decline. He argues that "the secular gospel of Political-Correctness" creates a linguistic dictatorship and a form of social conditioning, deceiving many, especially into thinking that we have made moral progress. The claim that we are now much more advanced and enlightened has found an enthusiastic audience. We now feel superior to the primitive pre-PC era.

Mullen vigorously attacks political correctness as a linguistic dictatorship and a form of social conditioning that deceives us into thinking we have made moral progress.

In discussing science, creation and design, Mullen also makes many useful points, simply put but displaying good knowledge. The same is true when he examines literary trends and the history of reason and philosophy. Overall, he covers a wide range of intellectual ideas with skill and understanding.

Looking forward or backward?

The weaker points in the book come, first, when he attacks the press (tabloids and others) for crude reporting and dumbing down of information. His excessive examples add little to his overall argument and may be off-putting.

Second, Mullen rails against the Church of England for trying to be modern, correctly arguing that the Church has done little to stem the decline and has indeed contributed to it through situation ethics and de-mythologising Biblical truth. But his insistence that the only proper Bible translation is the Authorised Version and that the Book of Common Prayer is vastly superior to the Alternative Service book make him appear stuck in the past. He may be right that, in a typically memorable phrase, modern worship is merely a "third rate echo of recently abandoned fashions in pop culture" (p86) but to assert that the AV and BCP were meant to be preserved for all time suggests his only solution to modern trends is to retreat into a bygone age.

Nevertheless, the book overall is an important contribution to a vital debate. We do need to "wake up to the fact that there is a militantly anti-Christian elite in Britain today" (p41). But he ends with positive advice for Christians in such circumstances: be diligent in prayer and study, form strong church communities, and trust in God.

Clifford Denton continues to examine the early separation between Christianity and Judaism, looking at their theological conflicts.

One of the main factors contributing to the early rift between the Christian Church and the Jewish community was a theological conflict that emerged as biblical prophecies were interpreted through the revelation of Jesus as the expected Messiah. We will consider here the beginnings of this theological separation.

Parting of the Ways

In Chapter 4 of Our Father Abraham, Marvin Wilson considers the parting of the Church from the Synagogue. This parting of the ways was a gradual process over many centuries, but the beginnings are found in the biblical account. In Acts 5:40 we read, "They called the apostles in and had them flogged. Then they ordered them not to speak in the name of Jesus, and let them go." Wilson writes:

The Jerusalem Council (Acts 15)...was an alpine event. Its decision would have profound implications for both Church and Synagogue in the years to come. By calling this council, the Church took a clear stand on the issue of gentile circumcision (Acts 15:5, 28-29). This most ancient of all covenant rites would not be a prerequisite to join the still fledgling messianic community which had rapidly expanded into the gentile world. (p52)

In later years, Christian theology would be the subject of many councils, and the creeds of the Christian Church would be crafted. New divisions would begin to occur in the Christian Church itself as various denominations and sects emerged. It was inevitable, however, that the separation of Christians from the sects of Judaism would occur in the early days of the Apostles.

Dr Wilson continues:

The picture of the Church which we are able to draw at this mid-century juncture is composite. It comprised essentially three main groups. One segment was made up of traditionalists from the circumcision party. They were conservative Jewish believers, most likely from the sect of the Pharisees, and were closely tied to Temple worship and Jewish Law...the Ebionite sect probably represented the remnants of this movement, a group which did not die out until the fourth century. A second distinguishable group was the free-thinking Hellenistic party. The Hellenists had one foot planted in the turf of Judaism.

But the other, more firmly set in Greek soil, caused this group to lean to the West. A third segment held to a middle or mainstream position. It reflected the thinking of the council and presumably also the majority of the Jerusalem church (see Acts 15:22). Some of its leading voices were James, Peter ("an apostle to the Jews"), and Paul ("an apostle to the Gentiles" cf. Gal. 2:8). Through the guidance of the Holy Spirit (Acts 15:28), this influential group sought to be open to Gentiles and yet sensitive to the Jews. (emphasis added)

The Christian movement began so powerfully, and the zeal of the early believers was so great, that it could not avoid drawing attention to itself. It was recognised as a heretical sect of Judaism and so caused response from the leaders of the Jewish community who foresaw coming division. The followers of Jesus were seen as emerging from the background of Jewish life, interpreting their message from the Hebrew Scriptures, continuing to visit the Temple, preaching their message among the Jews and interpreting their faith out of Jewish symbols and traditions.

Thus the first points of division can be seen in the Bible itself, before ever a Church Council emerged in later generations.

Theological Issues

Church creeds and doctrines crystallised over the centuries as a response to many issues of contending for the faith, but this began with the Apostles. We have already mentioned the meeting in Jerusalem (Acts 15) that has come to be known as the Council of Jerusalem. As further issues came up, so discussions took place and positions were taken. The New Testament writings introduced many statements of faith, even before systematic creeds were drawn up. Paul highlighted issues of doctrine that had to be made clear as congregations in the Gentile world faced various questions. Paul's writings, in themselves, marked a separation point from other forms of Judaism.

The New Testament writings introduced many statements of faith before systematic Christian creeds were ever drawn up.

In the Introduction to the Mishnah (translated by Danby, OUP, 1933) is an interesting confirmation of this separation based on the writings of the New Testament. The sects of Judaism codified the oral traditions while the Christian Church received the New Testament, signifying the theological parting of the ways. The Mishnah became the foundation of the Talmud and the New Testament became the basis of future creeds of the Christian Church:

The Mishnah may be defined as a deposit of four centuries of Jewish religious and cultural activity in Palestine, beginning at some uncertain date (possibly during the earlier half of the second century B.C.) and ending with the close of the second century A.D. The object of this activity was the preservation, cultivation, and application to life of 'the Law' (Torah), in the form in which many generations of like-minded Jewish religious leaders had learned to understand this Law. These leaders were known in turn by the names Soferim ('Scribes') and Tannaim (lit. 'repeaters', teachers of the Oral Law).

The latter taught the religious system of the Pharisees as opposed to that of the Sadducees. Until the destruction of the Second Temple in A.D. 70 they had counted as one only among the schools of thought which played a part in Jewish national and religious life; after the Destruction they took the position, naturally and almost immediately, of sole and undisputed leaders of such Jewish life as survived. Judaism as it has continued since is, if not their creation, at least a faith and a religious institution largely of their fashioning; and the Mishnah is the authoritative record of their labour. Thus it comes about that while Judaism and Christianity alike venerate the Old Testament as canonical Scripture, the Mishnah marks the passage to Judaism as definitely as the New Testament marks the passage to Christianity. (emphasis added)

First Century: the Separation Begins

The Apostolic Council of Jerusalem was around 49 AD. 1 and 2 Corinthians was written around 54-55 AD, Romans around 55 AD and Hebrews in the 60s. Peter and Paul's martyrdoms were around 64 AD. Matthew was written in the 60s, Revelation in the late 80s or early 90s. Thus the date of the destruction of the Temple (70 AD) is embedded in the dates surrounding the significant writings and formation of the doctrines of the Christian Church.

Already the ministry of Jesus had been pivotal in the Jewish world, his crucifixion being around 30 AD. His followers then became living witnesses to their faith and so the Christian community was noticeable in the world of Judaism, it being inevitable that their beliefs would be scrutinised by the leaders of the Jewish community.

The destruction of the Temple in 70 AD is embedded in the dates surrounding the New Testament writings, and followed the pivotal ministry of Jesus, so the Christian community was already well-known in the world of Judaism.

Other early Christian writings give indications of the way theological ideas began to form among believers. For example, around 95 AD Clement, secretary of the Roman Church, wrote to the Corinthian congregation. He viewed this congregation as what we might consider to be on a par with the Essene community of Qumran, fulfilling what was prefigured in the Old Testament. Later, in his second letter, we see him treat Paul's writings on an equal footing to the Scriptures of the Old Testament. Others such as Ignatius of Antioch have left letters which build up clues to the early theology of the Christian Church.

Statement of Faith

What emerged is called the kerygma. It is a Greek word meaning, 'proclamation, announcement, preaching'. CH Dodd (The Apostolic Preaching, 1936), and others, examined early Christian writings to discover the core of Christian preaching in the early days of the Apostles. The ancient kerygma as summarised by Dodd from Peter's speeches in Acts was:

1. The Age of Fulfillment has dawned, the 'latter days' foretold by the prophets.
2. This has taken place through the birth, life, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
3. By virtue of his resurrection Jesus has been exalted at the right hand of God as Messianic head of the new Israel.
4. The Holy Spirit in the church is the sign of Christ's present power and glory.
5. The Messianic Age will reach its consummation in the return of Christ.
6. An appeal is made for repentance with the offer of forgiveness, the Holy Spirit, and salvation.

Jesus Christ, of course, was the center of this ancient kerygma. The cross and resurrection are crucial to the kerygmatic preaching of Jesus. Another useful summary is found in Chronological Charts of the New Testament (Zondervan, 1981, p120) by H Wayne House:

1. The promises by God made in the Old Testament have now been fulfilled with the coming of Jesus the Messiah (Acts 2:30; 3:19,24; 10:43; 26:6-7, 22; Rom 1:2-4; 1 Tim 3:16; Heb 1:1-2; 1 Pet 1:10-12, 2 Pet 1:18-19).
2. Jesus was anointed by God at his baptism as Messiah (Acts 10:38).
3. Jesus began his ministry in Galilee after his baptism (Acts 10:37).
4. He conducted a beneficent ministry, doing good and performing mighty works by the power of God (Mark 10:45; Acts 2:22; 10:38).
5. The Messiah was crucified according to the purpose of God (Mark 10:45; John 3:16; Acts 2:23; 3:13-15, 18; 4:11; 10:39; 26:23; Rom 8:34; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:3; Gal 1:4; Heb 1:3; 1 Pet 1:2, 19; 3:18; 1 John 4:10).
6. He was raised from the dead and appeared to his disciples (Acts 2:24, 31-32; 3:15,26; 10:40-41; 17:31; 26:23; Rom 8:34; 10:9; 1 Cor 15:4-7, 12ff.; 1 Thess 1:10; 1 Tim 3:16; 1 Pet 1:2, 21; 3:18, 21).
7. Jesus was exalted by God and given the name 'Lord' (Acts 2:25-29, 33-36; 3:13; 10:36; Rom 8:34; 10:9; 1 Tim 3:16; Heb 1:3; 1 Pet 3:22).
8. He gave the Holy Spirit to form the new community of God (Acts 1:8; 2:14-18, 33, 38-39; 10:44-47; 1 Pet 1:12).
9. He will come again for judgment and the restoration of all things (Acts 3:20-21; 10:42; 17:31; 1 Cor 15:20-28; 1 Thess 1:10).
10. All who hear the message should repent and be baptised (Acts 2:21, 38; 3:19; 10:43, 47-48; 17:30; 26:20; Rom 1:17; 10:9; 1 Pet 3:21).

It was impossible for the differences in theology to go unnoticed as being a divergence from orthodox Judaism. Christianity, nevertheless, grew out of the Jewish background with common roots in the Tanakh, not as a new religion in the Gentile world, where it might have gone unnoticed. The centrality of Jesus the Messiah made it impossible for the Apostles to be silent and the fact that the oral traditions of Judaism (later codified as the Mishnah) made different emphasis, made it impossible for theological conflicts to be avoided.

It was impossible for Christianity to be ignored as a simple divergence from orthodox Judaism. The centrality of Jesus the Messiah made it impossible for the Apostles to be silent, and the difference between Christian doctrine and the Jewish oral traditions made theological conflict unavoidable.

Jewish Symbols

It was for the very reason that Christianity emerged from the background of Judaism that conflict occurred. On the one hand these are two branches of the same tree and, on the other hand, they are conflicting interpretations of the same Scriptures. On page 55 of Our Father Abraham, Dr Wilson presents Christianity as a radical reinterpretation of Jewish symbols and therefore ready to spark off reaction and potential parting of the ways:

The two Testaments exhibit strong continuity, but also a discontinuity. Many Old Testament institutions and themes are radically reinterpreted in the New Testament, often in ways – despite their foreshadowing – that the majority in New Testament times was unable to discern. In addition, the embodiment of the Torah in Jesus created a major tension. Jesus subordinated many of the central symbols of Judaism to himself, and the New Testament writers continued that subordination.

Thus, Jesus became the Temple (John 2:19-21) and the atoning sacrifice ("the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world" – John 1:29). At Passover the matzah, "unleavened bread," represented his body (Mark 14:22); likewise, the lamb sacrificed at Passover symbolized Jesus' sacrificial death (1 Corinthians 5:7). In addition, Jesus declared himself Lord of the Sabbath (Mark 2:27-28). He also distinguished the ritually clean from unclean (Mark 7:1-23). In sum, in early Jewish Christianity the "Sabbath, Temple, Law, sacrifices are christologically reinterpreted by the One who is greater than them all." (quoted from P. Richardson, Israel in the Apostolic Church, CUP, 1969). The overall effect was that the first-century Jewish community largely considered these teachings strange and antiritualistic, a threat to established religious beliefs of the day.

On the one hand, Christianity and Judaism are two branches of the same tree. On the other, they are radically conflicting interpretations of the same Scriptures.

For Reflection and Comment

How might the Christian Church, without compromising the Gospel, restore theological balance and heal the rift with Israel and the Jews?

Next time: Exclusion from the Synagogue.

Having begun our survey of the separation of the Christian Church from its historical roots, we now consider aspects of our inheritance: what legacies have the Jews given us?

The history of Israel reveals many things. Above all, the Jewish people are a living witness to the covenant faithfulness of the One True God. In addition, however, despite much failure to attain the highest goals of Torah, the Jewish people passed on to the Christian Church a testimony of Biblical interpretation and lifestyle, giving enough light on God's relationship with (and requirements of) mankind for the Christian Church to enter into its inheritance.

Unfortunately, because of the failure of Israel to live up to the perfect standards of Torah, the Christian Church has largely failed to give credit where it is due. We will make a brief survey of just a little of what the Christian Church owes to the Jewish people. First an important comment.

Good but not Perfect

No-one claims that Israel was perfect. Indeed, God did not choose Israel because of its size:

The Lord did not set His love on you nor choose you because you were more in number than any other people, for you were the least of all peoples; but because the Lord loves you, and because He would keep the oath which He swore to your fathers, the Lord has brought you out with a mighty hand, and redeemed you from the house of bondage, from the hand of Pharaoh king of Egypt. Therefore know that the Lord your God, He is God, the faithful God who keeps covenant and mercy... (Deut 7:7-9)

Nor did they displace other nations on merit:

Do not think in your heart, after the Lord your God has cast them out before you, saying, 'Because of my righteousness the Lord has brought me in to possess this land'; but it is because of the wickedness of these nations that the Lord is driving them out from before you. It is not because of your righteousness or the uprightness of your heart that you go in to possess their land, but because of the wickedness of these nations that the Lord your God drives them out from before you, and that He may fulfill the word which the Lord swore to your fathers, to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Therefore understand that the Lord your God is not giving you this good land to possess because of your righteousness, for you are a stiff-necked people. (Deut 9:4-6)

The prophets constantly echoed the theme of imperfection which, at its lowest point, even resulted in exile from the Land:

If you do not carefully observe all the words of this law that are written in this book, that you may fear this glorious and awesome name, the Lord your God, then...it shall be, that just as the Lord rejoiced over you to do you good and multiply you, so the Lord will rejoice over you to destroy you and bring you to nothing; and you shall be plucked from off the land which you go to possess.

Then the Lord will scatter you among all peoples, from one end of the earth to the other, and there you shall serve other gods, which neither you nor your fathers have known - wood and stone. And among those nations you shall find no rest, nor shall the sole of your foot have a resting place; but there the Lord will give you a trembling heart, failing eyes, and anguish of soul. (Deut 28:58-65)

The Book of Lamentations shows the anguish of a fallen nation:

How lonely sits the city that was full of people! How like a widow is she, who was great among the nations! The princess among the provinces has become a slave! She weeps bitterly in the night, her tears are on her cheeks; among all her lovers She has none to comfort her. All her friends have dealt treacherously with her; they have become her enemies.

Judah has gone into captivity, under affliction and hard servitude; She dwells among the nations, she finds no rest; all her persecutors overtake her in dire straits. The roads to Zion mourn because no one comes to the set feasts. All her gates are desolate; her priests sigh, her virgins are afflicted, and she is in bitterness. Her adversaries have become the master, her enemies prosper; for the Lord has afflicted her because of the multitude of her transgressions. Her children have gone into captivity before the enemy. (Lam 1:1-5)

Contemporary View

Even a contemporary comment recognizes the failure of Israel to achieve perfection. In Popular Halachah: A Guide to Jewish Living (edited by Avnere Tomaschoff, 1985), we read in the chapter entitled 'Serving the Creator':

Because of the sins of our forefathers, we were driven from our land, the land of Israel. Exile, dispersion and suffering caused many of our people to neglect the study of the holy language (Hebrew), to forget the Torah and to assimilate among the gentiles.

Our Expectations

We do not need to labour the point further. We acknowledge that Israel has not been a perfect light to the Gentiles. However, there are two errors we can commit as we respond to this. The first error is to expect perfection from Israel. The second is that, on account of the imperfection, we neglect all the good that has been done for the Christian Church because of the testimony of Israel.

It is only by God's grace that the Christian Church exists at all. With the biblical testimony of Israel to help us understand God's ways and draw near to him, we must remember that all good is from God. However, we can still validly consider these things from the human level. We would not even have our Bibles if it had not been for the Jewish people who had to walk the hard road before us, write down what they heard and experienced, and bring the Scriptures to us through many generations.

If we had received the truth in our Bibles another way, we would not have had the living testimony that Israel brings, showing their full humanity. Imperfect though this human testimony is, it is nevertheless a good and useful testimony, the one from which we learn. If they had not walked the hard path of seeking to respond to God, and failing, would we not have failed in the same way?

Imperfect though their testimony is, Israel provides a vital living testimony of true humanity seeking God. If they had not walked this hard path before us, would we not have failed in the same ways they did?"

When we look at the Jewish inheritance we must consider it, from our human standpoint, as good but not perfect. We should not seek to emulate their failures, but we can learn from their experiences and, starting from that point, we can use the Scriptures to seek out the good roots of that testimony.

If we keep this testimony alongside us as we also seek to walk with God, we can ignore what is imperfect and learn from what is good. We can also give credit where it is due for all that the Jewish people have given to the whole world. Their testimony came at great cost.

Jewish Communities

To investigate what we owe the Jews we simply need to look into their community life, in which there is much variety. In our day, among the people in the Land of Israel as well as in Jewish communities around the world, we can observe everything from atheism to devotion to the God of their Fathers. In the midst of this variety, we discover every aspect of God's dealing with the Jews and of their response to him.

In the Home

Jewish communal life shows us that community is built on family. Our first picture is therefore not of the Synagogue, but of the home. The focal point of the home is the family mealtime. This is most strongly emphasized at the Shabbat table, where we hear prayers to God, blessings on the children and between husband and wife, the sharing of bread and wine, and the candle-lighting ceremony to remember the light of the Sabbath, pointing to rest in God.

Jewish traditions are not necessarily straight from the Bible but they are generally a response to this heritage. In this case, the response is to the biblical emphasis on the Sabbath; to thank God for His provision, to bless one another and centre one's spiritual growth in the family.

Education and Worship

On other occasions, the home becomes a centre for education. We can picture the father studying from the teaching of God, leading evening prayers or talking to his children about the Scriptures and about God. We see an emphasis on education in the home and remember how God said to Israel:

And these words which I command you today shall be in your heart. You shall teach them diligently to your children, and shall talk of them when you sit in your house, when you walk by the way, when you lie down, and when you rise up. You shall bind them as a sign on your hand, and they shall be as frontlets between your eyes. You shall write them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates. (Deut 6:6-9)

If we were to look around a Jewish home in more detail, we might see the mezuzah on the door (parchment including these verses from Deuteronomy). Similarly, at a Synagogue we would see the tefillin (small boxes also containing verses) on the arms and forehead of the men in prayer. These are among the constant reminders of Torah's centrality to the lives of the Jews.

From Synagogues to Churches

In the Synagogue we would hear Torah read on a yearly cycle, again emphasising that Torah is central to the life of the Jew. But the Synagogue is not only a place of congregational meeting- it is also a House of Prayer and a House of Study. Here there are echoes back to the days of the Temple (there are also echoes in the function of Christian church buildings).

The Jewish people passed on to the Christian Church models of prayer, worship, and honouring the Bible as the teaching of God, in both the home and the community.

From the Jews we have not only inherited the Scriptures and their testimony, but also models of communal life, prayer, worship, teaching, celebration and devotion."

Our knowledge of the One True God comes from our Jewish inheritance. If the Jews had not been zealous to remember the Shema (the Hebrew word for hear) then how would Gentiles have responded to the coming of Jesus? Without this heritage, the Church would have all too readily drifted into even more idolatry than has occurred over the years of Christianity. The Shema is from the Book of Deuteronomy:

Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one! You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength. (Deut 6:4-5)

The Feasts

What would the Christian Church have made of the Feasts of the Lord had not Israel faithfully celebrated the Feasts on a yearly cycle? How would they have understood Passover (and in relation to this, Communion) without the rooting in the Passover Seder of the Jews? From the time of Moses until today, the Passover Seder has developed and been celebrated in ways interpreted by the Rabbis. We are free to look through the traditions into what the Bible says, but we have the Jewish interpretation as a place from which to begin.

Witness to the World

Then there is the wider fruit of Israel's Torah-consciousness. It was always God's intention that this Nation should be the light to the world. Instead of a book of philosophy, God prepared a people to live out his purposes, observable by all nations. In the midst of a pagan world, Israel has been a witness to the living God who dwelt among his people, and also to the ethical and legal requirements of a nation under God.

Instead of a book of philosophy, God prepared a people to live out his purposes as a witness to all nations."

It is true that the Christian influence on the world's legal and moral stance has been great. Nations such as Britain and America have attempted to frame their constitutions on biblical principles. However, the first nation to show the way was Israel. They demonstrated that the Living God enters into the affairs of men not just through dry commandments but through living relationships and we have seen the outworking of this giving vision and hope for our own nations.

Suffering

In all of this, Israel has suffered the consequences of being the chosen nation in covenant relationship, demonstrating every aspect of man's need, his relationship with God, his failings and successes. God came to earth in Yeshua HaMashiach (Jesus the Messiah) through the relationship he had been building with the people of Israel. The suffering of Israel, on account of their inability to live out this relationship to the full, brought us necessary teaching, so that we all might inherit what was first offered to them.

Faith and Works

Israel is built from families, and yet it is a nation, a corporate entity. There is a balance here that the Jews teach us between family and nation.

There is also a balance between faith and works. Every nation is bound to its own inheritance of land. The nation of Israel teaches us the very meaning of inheritance: an inheritance (in biblical terms) is something that God gives and yet which you also work for. Israel is a society that sees faith and works in balance- and as a consequence, Jews have achieved success in every area of human endeavour, even in the Diaspora.

We can therefore learn about the biblical balance of work and faith by observing the Jews (this has long been the starting point for the work ethic of Christian believers, and we must not forget it).

Christian Inheritance

The Christian Church has entered into the inheritance of the Jews, not to replace the Israel of God, but live as part of the Israel of God's family of faith rooted in Messiah:

For we are His workmanship, created in Christ Jesus for good works, which God prepared beforehand that we should walk in them. Therefore remember that you, once Gentiles in the flesh...that at that time you were without Christ, being aliens from the commonwealth of Israel and strangers from the covenants of promise, having no hope and without God in the world. But now in Christ Jesus you who once were far off have been brought near by the blood of Christ.

For He Himself is our peace, who has made both one, and has broken down the middle wall of separation, having abolished in His flesh the enmity, that is, the law of commandments contained in ordinances, so as to create in Himself one new man from the two, thus making peace, and that He might reconcile them both to God in one body through the cross, thereby putting to death the enmity. And He came and preached peace to you who were afar off and to those who were near. For through Him we both have access by one Spirit to the Father.

Now, therefore, you are no longer strangers and foreigners, but fellow citizens with the saints and members of the household of God, having been built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief cornerstone, in whom the whole building, being joined together, grows into a holy temple in the Lord, in whom you also are being built together for a dwelling place of God in the Spirit. (Eph 2:10-22)

From Inheritance to Biblical Root and Fruit

We can go on and on taking examples from every area of life to emphasise the indebtedness of the Christian Church to the Jewish people, and each of us should be careful to study this and give credit where it is due. Though Israel was not perfect, and even though individual Jews cannot fulfill their Covenant response to God unless they have faith in Yeshua the Messiah, we have good examples from Jewish life of the inheritance into which we were adopted. Every study of Jewish response to God is an example to us. This was touched on by Paul in 1 Corinthians 10.

Moreover, brethren, I do not want you to be unaware that all our fathers were under the cloud, all passed through the sea, all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea, all ate the same spiritual food, and all drank the same spiritual drink. For they drank of that spiritual Rock that followed them, and that Rock was Christ...Now these things became our examples...

When we read the Psalms, we ought to read them in the context of Israel's experience, out of which they were written. When we read the prophets we should study first the context of the history of Israel, as we seek to know God and the prophetic understanding of our own day. When we read the Torah we should consider how Israel responded to God through his teaching. We will find lessons for every part of life. If we look at the practices of the Christian Church and the fruit of Christianity among the nations, we must realise that all practical application of biblical principles began with the Jewish people.

We must realize that through history and across the world, all practical application of biblical principles began with the Jewish people."

Then we must go back to the Bible itself and study what is biblical, what is a good tradition and what is not useful from Jewish tradition, thereby maturing in our own response to Scripture. We have years of Christian history to consider too, in our appraisal of what the life of faith is meant to be. In all our searching, we must remember that our biblical inheritance was passed on to us through Israel and the Jews.

The most important truth of all is that Jesus the Messiah comes one hundred per cent from a Jewish background. The testimony of Jesus is perfect, but he would not want it to be detached from the background of Judaism from which he emerged - as King of the Jews. The perfect message of Jesus is not in isolation from this context.

Apart from Jesus, Israel did not fulfil the prophecy of the suffering servant of Isaiah 53. But they have suffered for us in passing on an inheritance, and we must recognise this as part of our own heritage.

For Study and Prayer

Consider Romans 11 in light of what we have studied.

Next time: Theological Conflict

'The Church and the Charter: Christianity and the Forgotten Roots of the Magna Carta' by Thomas Andrew (Theos, 2015, 60 pages, £5)

This book demonstrates, using many references to other writers and sources, how the Christian Church and theology were influential in the making of Magna Carta. Andrew first poses the question - why have the Christian sources of Magna Carta been so neglected? His book seeks to explore this position and show how Magna Carta reflected the theological ideas of the day and the important contribution by Archbishop Stephen Langton. In so doing the author provides useful information and encouragement to the general reader who wishes to maintain that our Christian heritage still plays a vital role in society today.

The introduction makes the point that "it is in the Magna Carta ('The Great Charter of the Liberties of England') that we first see rights language extended to 'all free men', rather than restricted to an elite group" (p10). The first chapter (The Road to Runnymede) deals with the tyranny of King John, his corrupt court and his fights with the rebel barons. The version of Magna Carta sealed at Runnymede hints at the struggle between King John and the English Church but contains the clause "the English Church shall be free, and shall have its rights undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired".

This book seeks to explore the question: why have the Christian sources of Magna Carta been so neglected?"

After Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered and Stephen Langton eventually succeeded him, the 1225 version of Magna Carta (issued with Langton's backing) formed the basis upon which the language of rights and liberties could be built, and Langton made sure that the rights of the independence of the Church would be maintained. "The history of political thought and the history of theological thought developed separately" (p31); the gap needed to be bridged and Langton sought to do just that.

The last chapter concerns the importance of "due legal process", which places the authority of the law above that of the king. This, again, was a major theological concern for Langton.

"The final version of the Magna Carta was not a charter for the privileged few, but a charter for the whole community of England..." This extension of the language of rights was greatly influenced by Gratian in his Decretum who put forward important principles for the understanding and use of canon law by the 'golden rule': "All things whatever that you would wish other people to do to you, do the same also to them." (p42, also Luke 6:31). To Gratian, this 'lies at the heart of justice'.

This brief book sets out in comprehensive detail the influences of Christian theology and the Church on Magna Carta- an encouraging account of Britain's Christian heritage."

The extension of rights language for all, as it became the common law of England, gave legal protection and rights regardless of status. It is important to remember that the principles enshrined by Magna Carta were rooted in Christian theology and the Church: "This fundamentally egalitarian message was central to the Christian gospel" (p43). As we celebrate the history of the Magna Carta on its 800th anniversary we can cherish the thought that the influence of the Christian Church played a major part. This pocket-sized book belies its brevity by setting out in comprehensive detail how this all came about. Theos have served the general public well in providing an accessible but thorough account of the forgotten roots of the Magna Carta.

Notes

The Appendix to the book has a translation of the Magna Carta made available by the British Library.

Theos is a Christian think tank that seeks to influence public opinion about the role of faith and belief in society. Launched in Nov 2006, Theos provides: high-quality research, reports and publications; an extensive events program; news, information and analysis to media companies, parliamentarians and other opinion formers. For more details visit www.theosthinktank.co.uk.

Continuing our celebration of Magna Carta 800, Anthony Busk opens up the story behind the charter's Godly principles, and asks what they mean for us today...

Celebrating 800 Years of Freedom

On 15 June 1215, in a meadow near Windsor, King John had to accept the demands of strife-weary earls and barons, and bring in political reform. It was not an amicable meeting. The king was autocratic and used to overriding justice with lawless, arbitrary judgements. Heavy taxation to pay for his wars in Europe, plus a legacy of debt left by his brother Richard (the 'Lionheart'), were threatening civil war.

King John had also interfered with Church elections by refusing to accept the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton (1150-1228). Instead, he wanted a man more amenable towards his own conduct. This had incurred the wrath of the Church of Rome which, by the 13th Century, claimed to be the supreme monarch over all Christendom- including kings and emperors.

The papal assertion of absolute authority led to power struggles across Western Europe. But there were theologians who disputed it. John of Canterbury (1162-1181) believed there was a biblical basis for a monarch to have direct accountability before God in his own right (Rom 13:1; 1 Pet 2:13-14). John was followed by Stephen Langton, who also concluded that kings should lead a nation in the fear of God. In Langton's view, the Church's role must be limited to providing godly advice, based on the Scriptures –but not political involvement. His attitude would have great significance for the future progress of Magna Carta.

The Legacy of Stephen Langton

When Stephen Langton was eventually accepted as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1213, one of his first acts was to rally the nation's disillusioned barons, leading them in pressuring King John to seal Magna Carta. This limited his powers and provided measures of protection for the English people.

Stephen influenced Magna Carta as both as a peacemaker and an intermediary. For instance, an earlier list of demands to the king from the earls and barons was entirely secular. Stephen's influence meant that the preface to the final draft now commenced: 'Know that before God, for the health of our souls...' It also included the phrase: 'at the advice of our reverend fathers Stephen, Archbishop of Canterbury...': the Church was not imposing but advising.

Thanks to Stephen Langton, Magna Carta was re-drafted from an entirely secular document into one infused with reverence for God."

This complemented Magna Carta's assertion that the monarch, as the secular authority, must respect that the Church is to be free from political interference- a very important guide for the future. This principle became accepted within Parliament during the Reformation, with the ascendency of the Church of England, and was eventually granted in law to all Christian denominations.

Christian Wisdom

Thanks to Stephen Langton's influence, Christian wisdom permeated Magna Carta's principles. As these principles became enshrined in English law, government and culture, so Godly values came to underpin the nation.

For instance, through his studies of Scripture, Langton developed the principle of 'due process', where someone cannot be deprived of life, liberty, or property without appropriate legal procedures and safeguards. This appears in several of Magna Carta's 'chapters'. Ch 39 reads:

No man is to be arrested, or imprisoned, or disseised (fined) or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go against him, save by the lawful judgement of his peers, or by the loss of the land.

This is the principle which led to the present day trial by jury. Addressing the vexatious approach by the king to tax with impunity, chapter 12 also points towards a future Parliament of the people: 'No 'scutage' or 'aid' may be levied in our kingdom without its general consent...' To assess tax levels there would be individual summons by letter of the good and the great 'to come together on a fixed day (of which at least forty days notice should be given) and at a fixed place...' (Ch 14).

The Role of Scripture

Magna Carta's strength down the centuries has lain in its application of Scripture, particularly the Old Testament. Stephen Langton believed that Scripture contained good principles of law that were applicable within any culture– not only Israel. For example, to reduce theft:

Neither we nor any royal official will take wood for our castle, or for any other purpose, without the consent of the owner (Ch 31/Deut 5:19).

False weights and measures were also condemned:

There shall be one measure of wine throughout all our kingdom...and one measure of corn; and one width of tinted clothes...Moreover for weights it is to be as for measures (Ch 35/Deut 25:13-15).

Magna Carta's strength through the centuries has lain in its application of Scripture."

In Jeremiah 18, we find an explicit illustration of the universal principles of God's governance:

The instant I speak concerning a nation and concerning a kingdom, to build and to plant it, if it does evil in my sight, so that it does not obey my voice, then I will relent concerning the good with which I said I would benefit it (v10).

Here, we find the defining of behaviour as evil or good, which in turn requires a fabric of 'legal' guidance (given in the Ten Commandments). It also makes clear that Almighty God does reveal himself, and if there is no response to his merciful warnings, the nation will break down.

One may summarise this as whether a country – especially its leadership – has a true fear of God, or has contempt for his laws. Romans 1 and 2 demonstrate in New Testament times that there is a 'common law' for all humanity, which when ignored provokes the wrath of God.

Challenges Today

Through Magna Carta, many biblical teachings have become legally embedded within British culture, becoming the law 'common to all'. Today, its legal message and social implications are still highly significant. This year, both the Law Society and the Bar have claimed that the Charter underpins the Rule of Law in England and Wales.¹ They quote Lord Denning, who described it as:

the greatest constitutional document of all times –the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot.

In today's culture, however, Magna Carta's principle of the rule of law is being undermined, because the objective template of law itself is being denied. Centuries of commonly-held Judeo-Christian principles, enriched through the influence of Scripture embedded heroically over the years by our forefathers, are being stripped away as a medieval anachronism.

Today Magna Carta's principle of the rule of law is being undermined, as the foundation stones of right and wrong are being replaced with the shifting sands of personal feelings and the barometer of being offended."

The foundation stones of right and wrong are being replaced with the shifting sands of personal feelings, and the barometer of being offended. The legal grounds to determine righteousness from unrighteousness are becoming transient. Justice can now be dependent on where the judge sits within a cacophony of shifting equality and human rights themes. The Church, its institutions and doctrines are under attack because the rule of law, which formerly gave it protection, is itself struggling.

Lessons to Apply

What are the lessons of Magna Carta? Perhaps most important is for the secular authority to recognise it is directly under a higher authority, and must never gravitate into a dictatorship, impervious to the laws of God and arbitrary in judgement. This is precisely summarised in prayers held prior to the sittings of both the Lords and the Commons. The latter includes the words:

Lord, the God of all righteousness and truth, grant to our Queen and her government, to Members of Parliament and all in positions of responsibility, the guidance of your Spirit. May they never lead the nation wrongly through love of power, desire to please, or unworthy ideals...Amen.²

Another message is the freedom of the Church, which must protect its integrity and independence from State interference. However, it also has responsibilities towards the State. It must persistently assert the responsibility of politicians and their hierarchy of civil servants to recognise God's sovereignty over nations. The Church must pray hard and speak up, to provide an anchor of righteousness of which politicians and civil servants can grasp hold.

Magna Carta not only affirms the Church's need for freedom from state interference; it also reminds us that the Church has responsibilities: to pray hard, speak up and provide an anchor of righteousness for the nation."

If we abandon Judeo-Christian values, there will be consequences. "Righteousness exalts a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people" (Pro 14:34).

Jehovah Nissi

The Church, the people of God redeemed through Christ's sacrifice, has a duty to both teach and encourage those who rule. It was God-fearing Christians 800 years ago who laid down the foundations of our democracy. There is a requirement for this generation to follow their example. New, Holy Spirit-breathed initiatives are required to assist MPs and others in authority to maintain and develop laws relevant to our culture. Individual Christians and churches also need to recognise the great importance of prayer for both national and local government. 1 Timothy 2:1-4 is very clear on this matter.

It is true that radical groups, not fearing the true God, have infiltrated politics at a high level, and are wreaking havoc upon the young and vulnerable. It is also true that through a gross distortion of the biblical principles of equality and respect, the fabric of law and order is being undermined. Unchecked this will lead to anarchy. However, a casual study of history demonstrates that no brutal assault is impossible to conquer, though it may seem it at the time.

800 years go, God-fearing Christians helped lay the foundations of our democracy. This generation must follow their example- we are the living Church for today."

We are the living Church for today, the infantry God wishes to use. His role has not changed, but remains Jehovah Nissi – 'the Lord is our banner'! Christians must follow our forefathers' example, engaging with a broken world, co-operating with the Holy Spirit and particularly blessing those in governance.

About the author: Anthony Busk has a background in ministry and a keen interest in the relationship between the Church and secular government. Through his own journey from secularism to whole-hearted commitment to the authority of Scripture, Anthony is overwhelmed by the real love and compassion Jesus has for a broken world, and of our need to press forward despite the darkness - proclaiming righteousness and reconciliation with God through the empty cross.

References

1 Caplen, A and MacDonald, A, 2014. Magna Carta: The Foundation of Freedom 1215-2015. Joint Law Society/Bar Council Special Edition, Third Millennium Publishing.

2 Parliament prayers.

Political change cannot provide solutions for society's deepest need: in the wake of the General Election it is time for Christians to unite to transform our nation...

The result of the 2015 General Election has meant relief for some and grief for others, but surprise for nearly all. One prediction came true: the SNP landslide. Will Scotland seek a further referendum on independence? Nicola Sturgeon says no, but if she does not gain what she wants at Westminster, will she change her mind? Will English and Scottish politicians spend the next five years butting heads? Will the Union collapse?

Division is rife

Division is rife in our nation: politically between Scotland and England, economically between north and south and the haves and have-nots, and socially between black and white, male and female.

Greed and selfishness breed unhealthy competition and division. Those who cannot compete go under and growing numbers find themselves in a poverty trap. We blame the government for our social ills, but no government can solve them all. Only the gospel can change the selfishness in human hearts that causes division and suffering. Only the compassion of the Saviour can reach the depths of broken lives and only a revival can transform society.

The Wesleyan revival of the 18th century transformed areas of society that no politician could reach. Yet our national church did not champion their preaching but closed its pulpits to them, so that the Wesley brothers and their friend George Whitefield began to preach out of doors to the poor. Opposition to the revival continued in the Anglican Church and so Methodism as a separate denomination was born. Sadly, part of the legacy of the revival was division in the Church. The opportunity for a revival uniting people across class and political divides as one Body of believers was lost.

If we are to see revival in our nation, we must seek unity so that we do not limit the work of the Holy Spirit by our divisions."

A divided nation needs a united Church

Let true believers of every denomination unite under the manifesto of Jesus from Isaiah 61:

The Spirit of the Sovereign Lord is on me, because the Lord has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor. He has sent me to bind up the broken-hearted, to proclaim freedom for the captives and release from darkness for the prisoners, to proclaim the year of the Lord's favour.

Cardinal Vincent Nicholls, leader of the Catholic Church in Britain, has pointed out that when Christians are persecuted, their persecutors do not ask what denomination they belong to or what, for example, is their theology of the Holy Spirit. They just see the people of the Cross. In the same way, the beggars Mother Teresa helped were unlikely to have questioned her orthodoxy: they simply saw her devotion to Christ.

The needs of our society cry out for Christians of all denominations to work together, sharing skills and resources, rather than insisting on promoting the work of our own churches and organisations, which leads to duplication of effort and inefficient use of assets.

That does not mean compromising core beliefs but discerning who are our real gospel partners: we must jealously guard the faith handed down to us by the apostles, and prioritise the saving work of the gospel at the centre of all mission and social action, otherwise we lose our distinctiveness (Matt 5:13).

Seeking unity does not mean compromising on core beliefs. It means discerning real partners in Christ and prioritising the saving work of the gospel."

How do we discern who our gospel partners are?

Christian unity must be based on our position "in Christ" (Gal 3:28), proceeding from his saving work and the ongoing work of his Spirit conforming us to his image (Rom 8:29).

The hallmark of true believers of every denomination is spiritual new birth (John 3:3), through which we become part of the Body of Christ:

there is one body and one Spirit, just as you were called to one hope when you were called; one Lord, one faith, one baptism; one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all. (Eph 4:4-6)

Ephesians 4 also speaks of our "unity in the faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God", which grows as we are equipped and edified by the five-fold ministry (v11-13). This implies that our unity is built on the Word of God. May we work towards local leaders meeting together for study and prayer so that unity for ministry in our neighbourhoods is strong in both word and Spirit?

Bound together in love

Jesus did not say that our distinctiveness lies in identical doctrinal positions on all points, but in the love we have for one another (John 13:35). It is time for us to unite in love, to "put on love, which binds all virtues together in perfect unity" (Col 3:14) and to "make every effort to keep the unity of the Spirit through the bond of peace" (Eph 4:3).

So let this "one body" work in unity across denominational boundaries to "bind up the broken-hearted" and "release the captives" (Isa 61). May we agree to disagree about our differences on matters of secondary importance and lift Jesus higher in our nation through servant-hearted gospel witness and social intervention?

Prophecy Today UK would love to hear about local initiatives involving believers from different churches and denominations working together. Please get in touch via our Contact page.

Over the next few weeks we will use some recent surveys from the Brierley Consultancy to delve further into what God is saying to Britain. Each instalment will feature statistics on a different set of trends, followed by biblical analysis from Monica Hill.

Hard factual evidence drawn from different kinds of surveys can help Christians to ascertain exactly what, where and how our society is changing, and can equip them both to pray and to take action where necessary.

Christians should be alert to current trends and be prepared to act to bring things into alignment with the ordained will of God. While nothing can take place outside the sovereign will and knowledge of God, not all activities are God-ordained.

This week: The Rise of Secularism: YES, I have NO religion!

Monica Hill looks back:

In 1985, in the first issue of Prophecy Today, the message was an encouraging one: ‘I will Pour out My Spirit’ (Acts 2:17). Whilst this may still be relevant across other continents, in many parts of Europe Christianity is struggling; a more relevant message may well be the message to the church in Sardis: ‘Wake up and strengthen the things that remain’ (Rev 3:2). For many this has become a rear-guard defensive action, rather than a pro-active, progressive one.

The Overall World Picture

In his many writings in the early part of the last century, Kenneth Scott Latourette put the historical growth of Christianity from the first days of the early church into global perspective.¹ Each period of spectacular growth was followed by a period of decline until a new impetus came on the scene which led on to greater growth than had ever been known before. These cycles or waves of advance and retreat have always led the church onwards and upwards.

"From the first days of the early church, each period of spectacular growth was followed by a period of decline until a new impetus came on the scene which led on to greater growth than had ever been known before."

Global population has more than tripled in the last 100 years (from under 2 billion to 7 billion²). The growth of Christianity has roughly kept pace, being embraced by about a third of humanity.³ In the same time, however, Islam has been expanding much more rapidly, growing from 12% of the world’s population to 22%.⁴

Although Christians comprise just under a third of the world’s people, they form a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories, about two-thirds of all the countries and territories in the world.⁵ About 90% of Christians currently live in these majority-Christian countries, where Christian values are mostly accepted; only about 10% of Christians worldwide live as minorities, adapting their living and experiencing different levels of acceptance.

Half (48%) of all Christians in the world live in the 10 countries with the largest number of Christians, where Christianity is widely accepted and deeply established.⁶ Three of these are in the Americas (the United States, Brazil and Mexico), two are in Europe (Russia and Germany), two are in the Asia-Pacific region (the Philippines and China) and three are in sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia).

Movement of the Centre of Christianity⁷

Until 100 years ago, Europe had been the centre of global Christianity for a millennium: in 1910, about two-thirds of the world’s Christians were in Europe.⁸ In the 19th century Europe had also become the biggest missionary sending-continent (North America took over that baton in the 20th Century; time alone will tell who takes it on next).

Today, only about a quarter of all Christians live in Europe (26%). A plurality – more than a third – are now in the Americas (37%). About one in every four Christians lives in sub-Saharan Africa (24%), and about one-in-eight is found in Asia and the Pacific (13%). So whilst there are over 2 billion Christians of all ages around the world, no single continent or region can now claim indisputably to be the centre of global Christianity.

"Since 1910 Christianity has moved from being centred in Europe to being dispersed around the world, shifting from rich nations to poorer ones."

This dispersal also represents a general shift in Christianity away from rich nations towards poorer nations. Last century, the Global North (a short-hand for the wealthiest nations in the world, commonly defined as North America, Europe, Australia, Japan and New Zealand) contained more than four times as many Christians as the Global South (the rest of the world). Today, more than 1.3 billion Christians live in the Global South (61%), compared with about 860 million in the Global North (39%).⁹

Current areas of major growth: Africa and Asia-Pacific

The fastest growth in the number of Christians over the past century has been in Sub-Saharan Africa (a roughly 60-fold increase, from fewer than 9 million in 1910 to more than 516 million in 2010) and in the Asia-Pacific region (a roughly 10-fold increase, from about 28 million in 1910 to more than 285 million in 2010).¹⁰

"In the last century, Christianity has increased 60-fold in Sub-Saharan Africa, and 10-fold in Asia-Pacific."

Indonesia is the 4th most populous country in the world, behind China, India and USA.¹¹ Its population grew from 162m in 1985 to over 253m in 2014, and it still has the largest Muslim population in the world. However, Indonesia is also home to more Christians than all 20 countries in the Middle East/North Africa region combined. Since the bloody coup d’état in 1965 everyone has to be registered to one of six religions – namely Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism.¹²

Although the official records still show 88% as being nominally Muslim¹³ there has been a tremendous Spiritual Awakening since the 1990s. When we were there in 2001, reliable Christian sources were reporting that the rate of conversion of Muslims to Christianity was so great that the total number of Christians (both Catholic and Protestant) in the population was approaching 50%, but for political reasons the Government supressed this information.

Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia-Pacific now have a combined population of about 800 million Christians, roughly the same as the Americas. Five of the top 10 countries with the largest Christian populations are either in Africa (Nigeria, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia) or Asia-Pacific (Philippines and China).¹⁴

In a relatively short time, Africa has gone from having a majority of followers of indigenous, traditional religions, to being predominantly a continent of Christians and Muslims. Christians are now estimated to be 40% of the continent's population, with Muslims forming 45% - roughly divided between the South and the North, respectively.¹⁵

"In a relatively short time, Africa has gone from having a majority of followers of indigenous, traditional religions, to being predominantly a continent of Christians and Muslims."

Christianity is embraced by the majority of the population in most Southern African, Southeast African, and Central African states, and others in some parts of Northeast and West Africa. The Coptic Christians make up a significant minority in Egypt but the strong 1st century church of Tertullian in North Africa is struggling for survival.¹⁶ Nigeria now has more than twice as many Protestants (broadly defined to include Anglicans and independent churches) as Germany, the birthplace of the Protestant Reformation.¹⁷

Other growth areas: Latin America and China

Across the Atlantic, the majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%), mostly Roman Catholics (Brazil has more than twice as many Catholics as Italy¹⁸).

However, membership in Protestant denominations is increasing, particularly in Brazil, Guatemala, El Salvador and Puerto Rico. Latin American Protestants numbered 64 million in 2000 (compared to 50,000 in 1990), with three-quarters of this total being Pentecostal and Charismatic.¹⁹ In the late 1990s, 8,000 Latin Americans were deserting the Catholic Church every day for Evangelical Protestantism.²⁰ Venezuela, which is 92% Catholic, officially recognised 15,000 evangelical churches in 2013.²¹

Finally, in China, after a hundred years of missionary effort there were only 100,000 believers at the time of the 1927 communist coup, followed by the prohibition of religion.²² Despite cruel persecution by the communist regime, until the 1990s the underground church grew and since then there has been a vast increase in the number of Christians and churches – so much so that by 2030 it is predicted there will be more Christians in China than in the whole of the United States.²³

"By 2030 it is predicted there will be more Christians in China than in the whole of the United States."

Areas of major decline, and the challenge from Islam

The most drastic recent declines in Christian populations have been in Syria and Iraq, where there have been significant ancient communities from the early church days. Though the region is often recognised as the birth place of Christianity, Christian communities are being obliterated there as the Islamic State becomes established.²⁴

Indeed, today the Middle East/North Africa has the lowest concentration of Christians (c.4% of the region’s population) and the smallest number of Christians (c.13 million) of any major geographic region.²⁵

Islam is now the world’s second largest religion after Christianity. Since 1985 and the first issue of Prophecy Today, Islam has increased by 25% in North America, by 142.35% in Europe and by 257.01% in Australia and Oceania / Pacific, with the global Muslim population growing at nearly twice the rate of non-Muslim populations.²⁶

According to these statistics, one in five people on the planet are Muslim. Whilst it is difficult to predict future trends, several speculators suggest that by the middle of this century Islam could have more adherents than Christianity.²⁷

What is happening in Britain?

According to the Daily Telegraph, the UK population grew from 56 million in 1985 to 64 million in 2015, with half of the increase being in the last 12 years and the UK now showing the fastest population growth in Europe.²⁸ Through the twin pressures of secularisation and immigration, the religious make-up of the UK has become extremely diverse. The 2011 Census showed that Islam and minority and alternative religions are steadily growing, whilst less than half of the British people believe in a God.²⁹

Christianity in Britain has suffered an immense general decline since the 1950s. Between 1979 and 2005, half of all Christians stopped going to church on a Sunday.³⁰ In 2006, Tearfund found that two thirds of the UK have no connection with any religion or church, even though 59.3% put their religion down as “Christian".³¹ Britain, once a proudly Christian country, is gradually being replaced with ‘post-Christendom’ and all the problems this brings.

  "Between 1979 and 2005, half of all British Christians stopped going to church on a Sunday."

It is, however, unlikely that a religious vacuum will remain for too long. Many of our cities, like Leicester, now have more mosques than churches. But recent news of a wave of Muslim converts to Christianity could signal good news for the future - is the church prepared for this?

In the last 30 years the UK church presence has fragmented into a number of smaller groupings and there has been a significant decline in traditional denominations with many church closures. The Christian presence would have drained much more quickly had new churches not been planted and established, and had a renewed emphasis not been put on taking the church into new areas with evangelistic outreaches.

"The Christian presence would have drained much more quickly had new churches not been planted and established"

Fresh Expressions³² working with the traditional churches has been one of the most successful ways of redefining church, with our personal involvement with the Christian Resources Exhibition and The Sharing Show resulting in publicity being given to the many new initiatives and the Love outreach.

Additionally, whereas in the 19th century Britain was a significant missionary-oriented country taking the Gospel to the ends of the earth, Christians from these countries are now coming here to re-evangelise our nation. Africa and Asia are leading the way. The Black Majority churches are now the fastest-growing in London,³³ and many ethnic-led Bible Colleges and Church Planting schools are also springing up.

What of the Hopes for Charismatic Renewal?

In the early 1980s the Charismatic and Pentecostal movements were at their height, not only in this country but also worldwide, and hopes ran high that Charismatic renewal would penetrate every sector of the church world-wide with new vitality and purpose.

During the intervening 30 years this movement has settled down in the UK and developed an ‘orthodoxy’, so it is seen now as just one aspect of a wider church scene. In many places this institutionalisation has hindered its growth, so that like the Church in Ephesus (Rev 2:4), it may have lost sight of its first love. Increasingly, therefore, all the messages to the churches in Revelation 2-3 are relevant to Christians in the UK today.

Is there any hope for the UK?

We must never give up hope that God is in control as he reveals more and more of his truth and love. Thirty years ago Prophecy Today had links with churches and Christians in many different parts of the world which led to a sharing of their insights and experiences within the pages of the magazine. It is hoped that this will continue in future, so that Prophecy Today will offer people a grounded, biblical understanding of the trends discussed here.

Since 1985 new technology and increased travel and migration has opened more doors to the Gospel within and between countries. Pray that this will continue to fulfil the Great Commission that Christ gave to his disciples in Matthew 28:18-20, which has never been rescinded.

References

1 Latourette, K S, 1953. History of Christianity. Vol 1 & 11, Harper and Row.

2 World population is currently increasing at 1.21% per year and is predicted to continue to grow well into the 22nd Century but at much reduced rates.

3 Growth of Religion (Christianity), Wikipedia.

4 Growth of Religion (Islam), Wikipedia.

5 Pew Research Center, 2012. Religion & Public Life Project.

6 Ibid.

7 Unless otherwise stated, all statistics in this section are taken from the executive summary of the Pew Research Center’s Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Christian Population.

8 Historical estimate by the Center for the Study of Global Christianity.

9 The total population of the Global South is about 4.5 times greater than the population of the Global North.

10 See note 5.

11 Demographics of Indonesia: Religions, Wikipedia.

12 Religion in Indonesia, New World Encyclopedia.

13 International Religious Freedom: Indonesia. UNHCR report, 2009.

14 See note 5.

15 Encyclopædia Britannica, 2003. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, p306

16 Coptic Christianity, Got Questions.

17 See note 5, also http://www.history.com/topics/reformation

18 See note 5.

19 Allen, J L, 2006. The dramatic growth of evangelicals in Latin America, NCR Online, 18 August.

20 Study commissioned in the late 1990s by CELAM, the federation of Latin American Catholic bishops' conferences. Allen, J L, 2006. The Pentecostal phenomenon in Latin America, NCR Online, 20 December.

21 Martinez, J, 2013. Venezuelan Gov’t to Legally Recognize 15,000 Evangelical Churches, Christian Post, 11 September.

22 Anderlini, J, 2014. The rise of Christianity in China, FT Magazine, 17 November.

23 Phillips, T, 2014. China on course to become world’s most Christian nation in 15 years, The Telegraph, 19 April.

24 Nazemroaya, M D, 2014. Wiping out the Christians of Syria and Iraq to remap the Middle East: Prerequisite to a clash of civilizations? Strategic Culture Foundation, Centre for Research on Globalization, 30 July.

25 See note 5.

26 Tsang, S, 2011. Muslim Populations in the World, Diversity Statistics.

27 Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance, 2001. Growth rates of Christianity and Islam.

28 Bingham J, 2014. UK has had fastest growing population in Europe for a decade, 26 June.

29 Crabtree, V, 2012. Religion in the UK: Diversity, Trends and Decline.

30 See note 29.

31 Tearfund, 2007. Churchgoing in the UK report.

32 www.freshexpressions.org.uk

33 Brierley Consultancy, The London Church Census, June 2013.