What is the best way to study Bible passages on the end times?

There are many reasons for reading the entire Bible over and over again. One reason is to ensure that we find all its references to whichever theme we are studying, including the end times. More important, however, is that we cultivate a biblical worldview.

Instead of reading and interpreting the Bible through the lens of our worldly experiences and what others have told us, we look out on the world and judge what we see through the lens of Scripture, ingrained into our hearts by the Holy Spirit as we study carefully and prayerfully.

Today, particularly in the West, we live busy lives and have access to a wealth of information on all subjects, including Bible themes. Such information is no longer contained in Christian bookshops but also proliferates online. Without realising it, we can end up taking shortcuts in our Bible studies, gleaning from others rather than studying for ourselves. In so doing, we are in danger of imbibing the mindsets of others, rather than working out our own through a personal walk with God.

Instead of reading the Bible through the lens of our worldly experiences, we should look out on the world and judge what we see through the lens of Scripture.

This surely is a major reason for many of the conflicting views on the end times. Would it be different if our attitude was like that of the Bereans (Acts 17:11), who searched the scriptures for themselves to see if what they heard was true?

Biased Perspectives and Their Consequences

For example, perhaps even without realising it, we may still retain an element of Replacement Theology in our thinking, leading us to concentrate overmuch on God's plan for the Church in the Gentile world. In turn, we easily lose a balanced perspective on his designs for Israel and therefore his overall covenant plan.

We might also cultivate a habit of seeking to select verses of Scripture – often out of context - as 'proof texts' for our hopes for the future of the Church. Surely this is why there is so much contemporary emphasis on an expectation of the 'rapture', when the Church will be taken out of the difficult circumstances of the world, and when this will occur. 'Proof texts' used in support for this are Matthew 24:37-41 and 1 Thessalonians 4:13-17.

If we focus too much on this hoped-for event, out of context with the rest of Scripture, we begin to read every other aspect of end times Scripture through this lens. We become more and more concerned to find the best estimate of where to place the 'rapture' – and others do the same, with different conclusions, resulting in conflicting views of 'pre-', 'mid-' and 'post-tribulation' rapture.

Though Paul told the Thessalonians to comfort one another with an expectation of the Lord's return (1 Thess 4:18), I do not think he would have had them take his dramatic description of the way it will happen so out of context, as many today seem to have done.

If we lose a balanced perspective on God's overall plan, we can end up taking Scripture out of context.

The Background of the Covenant

The context of the end times (and all the events leading up to the return of the Lord) is the overall covenant plan of God. 'Covenant' and 'end times' are two intersecting themes that weave through Scripture, overlapping to become totally dependent on one another. If we read the entire Bible with this in mind, we cannot also fail to see that there is another theme bound up with these two – namely, God's purpose for Israel. A biblical mindset holds all this in balance. We find these overlapping themes behind the writings of all the Prophets, e.g.:

• The promised New Covenant proclaimed to Israel and Judah (Jer 31) is within the context of God's end times plan for Israel.
• The end time passages in Ezekiel 38 and 39 are in the context of the re-birth of Israel in Ezekiel 37.
• The great end time deliverance of Israel shown to Daniel (Dan 12) is in harmony with the other Prophets and with the Book of Revelation.
• Jesus, in speaking of his return (Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 21), was talking to his disciples in the Land of Israel, to where he will return.

Harmony of Scripture

In reading the scriptures as a whole, we find that there is balance and harmony in all the major Bible themes. But without realising it, we often read one set of scriptures and put it in one compartment of our mind and another set and put it in another compartment, as if there are parallel worlds to which they apply.

This applies to reading the New Testament and Old Testament in isolation from each other, as much as to reading certain passages and Books in isolation. All the scriptures build together to emphasise one period of end time history. Ezekiel and Daniel, for example, both speak of the same time and circumstances, as do Jesus in the Gospels and John in the Book of Revelation.

The context of the end times is the overall covenant plan of God, including his purposes for Israel.

If we study the scriptures in a balanced way, we will find themes echoing across the whole of the Bible that will help us prepare, understand the signs of the times and have a sense of God's timing. For example:

• The 'sacrificial meal' and its context in Ezekiel 39:17-20 is echoed in Revelation 19:17-21. These surely are descriptions of the same event.
• Could we consider before God whether the sealed scroll of Daniel 12:4 was the same one opened by Jesus in Revelation 5:9-10? It is reasonable to assume this, since the last things on this earth could only be released after the Sacrifice of Jesus opened the way for the Gospel to go out to the entire earth, prior to the final judgments.
• Also, surely, the events so clearly revealed in Matthew 24, Mark 13 and Luke 21 are precisely the same events proclaimed more mysteriously in the Book of Revelation. All these things line up in harmony.

Haggai Speaks of the End Times

Many of us believe that, over recent years, God has spoken to us concerning the fulfilment in our day of the great shaking of Haggai 2:21-22, repeated in Hebrews 12:25-29. This is not independent of all else that is prophesied for the end times but fits into the overall picture, helping us to understand where we are on the final run-up to the return of Jesus.

This also focuses our attention on the covenant priorities of our age - completion of God's purposes for Israel and the strengthening of believers across the world.

All the scriptures on the end times build together in harmony.

Our Purpose

This short series on the end times is not intended to bring yet another formula, but to encourage the reading of the entire Bible afresh, with prayerful desire to understand the times. At four chapters a day this would take about a year, by which time world affairs will have moved on and it will be wise to consider it all again. There is no substitute for this prayerful study on our own and in our local prayer and study groups.

When the disciples asked about the signs of the Lord's coming, they were told to watch and pray. That command has been passed down to us. In so doing, we will be drawn closer to the Lord and to one another as the events unfold before us. We will achieve a stronger biblical worldview and we will learn to find harmony in all the scriptures.

Next time: An overview of Matthew 24.

For other articles in this series, click here.

Clifford Denton traces the theme of family through Scripture, including how God instituted the family as a shadow of our relationship with him.

The theme of family is woven through the Bible from Genesis to Revelation. The family is at the heart of the believing community. It should not surprise us, therefore, that one of the major areas of spiritual conflict in every generation, including our own, is the family.

If we truly had the Bible as our guide at the heart of our nation, we would never have had need to address the issue of laws that liberalise and confuse the definition of marriage and the associated confusion over gender that besets our generation. We would have a clearer view of roles and relationships of fathers, mothers and children and know God's own purposes and patterns for building society's foundations on the biblical pattern for family. As a result, we would surely find God's blessings as we seek to grow together in our communities founded on strong family relationships.

Generally speaking, though there are some major warnings to heed, the Bible teaches positively, so if we study carefully and respond positively to God's teaching we do not need to dwell too much on the negatives.

There are biblical warnings about departure from God's structure of family (including taking divorce lightly, eg Mal 2:14-15; Mark 10:5-9, and wrong relationships eg Lev 18, Rom 1:26-29) which are to be taken very seriously. Thank God that through Jesus there is a path of redemption through repentance for those who have strayed. But for this study let us concentrate on the positive aspects of the Bible's teaching on family. Like all Bible themes we can trace this theme from Genesis to Revelation, through the Torah, the Prophets, the Writings and the New Testament.

Family Before Time, and Forever

There was a family before time began, including the Father and his Son through whom all things were made (John 1). Father and Son are in perfect unity and one with the Holy Spirit. There was a community in Heaven including the Godhead and the Angels - we have enough information to know about this but not enough to form a clear picture. The principles of the family of God were embedded in Creation, however, bringing shadows of heavenly reality to earthly experience.

Genesis 1 describes how God brought the animals into partnership, male with female, and mankind was made in the image of God (Gen 1:26). So began the way that God's Creation was to be ordered, finally leading to the fulfilment described in the New Testament when the family of God will be gathered to join the family of Heaven for all eternity (John 14:2-4; Rev 19:7).

The principles of the family of God were embedded in Creation, bringing shadows of heavenly reality to earthly experience.

The First Family on Earth

When Adam was created his own wife was taken out of him to be his companion in the flesh (Gen 2:18-25). Thus began the principle of family life on earth. God began with a man and a woman who were of one flesh, separated into two distinct beings, with a central purpose of reproducing themselves and populating the world. It is no mistake that multiplication of mankind requires the most intimate of relationships, intended to be maintained in holiness and purity. The unity of our Heavenly Father and his own Son was to be modeled through our human relationships as we multiplied into families.

We are so used to the way family life has been distorted by sin and through spiritual attack that it is wise to go back and consider God's first family to regain his vision for what was intended. Adam and Eve were to live in harmony with God and bring forth godly offspring, replicating the biblical principle of family into every generation (Mal 2:15).

Noah and His Family

A family was saved at the Flood. The family of Adam had multiplied and evil began to spoil what God had intended. This is described first in terms of the community breakdown when "the sons of God saw the daughters of men, that they were beautiful; and took wives from them of whom they chose" (Gen 6:2). It is not easy to understand just what happened here - it could have been an interaction between natural and supernatural beings and/or a departure from God by those who knew him marrying with those who did not. Whatever this was, there was a breakdown of God's family on earth and this led to the judgment of the Great Flood.

Through God's grace, mankind continued with the family of Noah and representatives from the families of the animals (Gen 7). After the Flood Noah received the command to populate the earth once more (Gen 9:1). Through one family many new families would come – a fresh start.

Our Father Abraham

Another perspective on family came through Abraham. Abraham, our father of faith, is the father of a family from all nations. Israel, his physical offspring, became a nation built on family principles, just as the new covenant community should be. God's covenant (Gen 17:1-7) was framed in terms of family.

There follows in the chapters of Genesis a wonderful account of the beginning of Abraham's physical descendants. The account of Abraham's desire for a son and his relationship with Sarah his wife is a real account of God's building through family. The account of Abraham's servant finding a bride for Isaac (Gen 24) is a beautiful story that could even point to the Holy Spirit seeking out a Bride for Jesus.

The principles of the family being the base on which God was to build in both physical and spiritual ways is strongly evident here as the parallel themes continue to develop throughout the rest of the Bible.

The Theme of Family Develops

Here are some of the many references to follow up as the priority of family develops through Scripture:

• God's promise to Abraham is remembered and worked out in families (Ex 2:24-25, 12:1-11, Ex 24, 34).
• The congregation of the Lord was numbered by families (Num 1).
• Family framework is ingrained in the Ten Commandments – the family of God and the human family (Deut 5, Ex 20).
• The teaching programme of God is to be founded on what is done in the home. Children are to be taught the ways of God through family interaction. (Deut 6).
• The Sabbath and Feasts of the Lord are celebrated in a family framework within the covenant community (Lev 23).
• The nation of Israel was a nation of families and tribes (1 and 2 Chron).
• The Psalms give wonderful pictures of families blessed by God and needing God for blessing and protection (eg. Ps 127, Ps 128).
• God honours highly a wife who is in covenant partnership with her husband (Prov 31:10-31).
• The blessing of pure and intimate relationships as God intended are made evident in beautiful, uplifting ways in the Bible, but there is also a warning concerning perversion of the biblical order of man and wife (eg compare Song of Songs with Hebrews 13:4).

Family as a Basis for Our Relationship with God

When we study this theme across the scriptures we realise that there is something even more important than the order and blessings that the biblical family structures bring to life on earth. We, in a sense, through our family love, unity and interactions, rehearse relationship with God himself, within his eternal purposes.

Through family love, unity and interactions, we rehearse relationship with God himself.

God the Father compared himself with a husband to his people (eg Jer 3, Isa 54, Matt 6:6). If we have a pure understanding of family relationships on earth, we are more ready for those relationships to be transferred to God himself – intimate and pure. God hates divorce (Mal, Matt 19:4-6). If we are vulnerable to divorce in our human relationships, we may also be vulnerable to broken relationships with God. How much do hurts that come out of family upheavals lead to difficulty in forming relationships with God, and how much do loving relationships experienced in family life open the way to relationship with God!

With this sort of understanding we also realise that there are parallels to be drawn between parents teaching children in the home and God teaching his family through the power of his Holy Spirit (Prov 1-9). Step by step through the practices and interaction of the human family, we are being prepared for our place in the everlasting family of God.

Jesus is the head of his covenant community and of our individual families. Consider his sacrifice for his family (Heb 3:6). What does this teach us about our own families and the level of commitment that is expected? Purity of relationships in our family life prepares us for pure relationship with our perfect, holy heavenly Father (Eph 1:3-14, Rom 8:1-17).

If we have a pure understanding of family relationships on earth, we are more ready for those relationships to be transferred to God.

God's family is one body made up of Jews together with those saved from the Gentile world (Eph 2, Rom 4:12, Rom 11). The head of our family existed before time and so this family, consisting of those saved from this world through faith joined to him, has in a sense always existed. We are added to this one family as history proceeds.

How we should live on account of this is a constant theme of the New Testament (John 1, John 17, 1 Pet 3:1-7, 2 Pet 3:11). God honours a believer in the household (1 Cor 7, particularly 14) in his outworking of plans to extend his family through grace.

The Family of God

Our Bible study of family takes us from the first principles of family being at the heart of God's purpose for Creation and step by step brings us to the purpose of his preparation for his own covenant family drawn from all nations.

Paul the Apostle, with this understanding, exhorted believers to strengthen their families for the very purpose of preparation for membership of God's family. God gives responsibility to husbands and wives, and emphasises the importance of children submitting to their parents for the stability of the whole community and nation. The balance of husband and wife relationships as a model for relationship with God the Father and Jesus his Son was expounded by Paul in the Epistle to the Ephesians (Eph 5 and 6). Paul pointed to the unfolding mystery of this, taking us back to the first principles of Genesis 1 and pointing to eternal purposes of God.

Step by step through the practices and interaction of the human family, we are being prepared for our place in the everlasting family of God.

Order and discipline are required in Scripture, with warnings for falling away from God's model of family, but this is not the main intent. The beauty and intimacy of the relationships that family life brings is the chief theme of Scripture.

Our families are the building blocks of the covenant community, the place where we should learn of God our Father together, so that we might ourselves be part of the living parable pointing to the relationships of God with all his people.

God's relationship with us is as father to child and husband to wife. The union of the Son of God with those he bought by his sacrificial death will be in relationship with him as a bride is to a husband. The elect of the fallen family of Adam will be redeemed as the family of God. God's intention for his people is that we build our communities founded on the family with this purpose always in view.

Edmund Heddle unpacks Peter's valuable instructions on prophecy.

In his two New Testament letters Peter augments and complements the teaching on prophecy and prophesying found in the letters of Paul. The two writers between them establish a complete answer to the question 'What is a prophet?' Peter's letters contain five paragraphs in which he deals with prophets and prophesying, each full of valuable instruction, and we shall deal with each paragraph in turn.

Prophecies Concerning the Coming Messiah (l Peter 1:10-12)

Concerning this salvation, the prophets, who spoke of the grace that was to come to you, searched intently and with the greatest care, trying to find out the time and the circumstances to which the Spirit of Christ in them was pointing when he predicted the sufferings of Christ and the glories that would follow. It was revealed to them that they were not serving themselves but you, when they spoke of the things that have now been told you by those who have preached the gospel to you by the Holy Spirit sent from heaven. Even angels desire to look into these things.

The Old Testament prophets who foretold the coming of Messiah referred to him as the gift of God's grace. This they did under the direction of the Holy Spirit, who revealed through them the sufferings of Christ and the subsequent glory that would follow. The prophets were clear about the coming of the Messiah – but who he should be, what he should do, and at what point in history he would appear - all of these things they longed to know but were kept in the dark.

It was revealed to them that the prophecies they uttered were not for the immediate benefit of either themselves or God's people. They had been given for the enlightenment and blessing of a later generation, namely the people of Peter's day.

So the message had remained hidden, though they searched intently and with the greatest care. Prophets on earth and angels in heaven longed to understand the fullness of the prophetic revelation. The Greek word translated 'look into' is the same as the word used in John 20:11 to describe Mary Magdalene's entrance into the grave of Jesus, where she stooped down to look, standing at the side of the tomb so as not to get into her own light. How carefully should we look into the prophetic word, especially where the immediate application appears to be neither easily understandable nor relevant.

Old Testament prophets foretold the coming of the Messiah but were kept in the dark about the meanings of their own prophetic revelations.

The lesson from this paragraph is that no one prophet conveys the whole message. Paul in 1 Corinthians 14:29 suggests that "two or three prophets should speak, and the others should weigh carefully what is said."

Prophecy needs to be taken seriously and is best weighed in the company of the Lord's people. We need the Holy Spirit as much in understanding prophecy as in its
proclamation. The prophetic word about the Messiah remained hidden until Peter himself - the Spirit-filled preacher on the day of Pentecost - brought the explanation of their age-long bewilderment.

Using God's Grace-Gifts for His Glory (1 Peter 4:10-11)

Each one should use whatever gift he has received to serve others, faithfully administering God's grace in its various forms. If anyone speaks, he should do it as one speaking the very words of God. If anyone serves, he should do it with the strength God provides so that in all things God maybe praised through Jesus Christ. To him be the glory and the power for ever and ever. Amen.

God's grace is 'multicoloured' and is revealed in the gifts (charisma) of his Spirit. Peter mentions two gifts here:

1. The ability to speak God's words or, as it is usually termed, the ability to prophesy. "...the very words of God" is an attempt to translate the Greek word logion, which is usually translated by the word 'oracle' and means a divine response or utterance. This word is used in the scriptures of the Mosaic law, God's written utterances through Old Testament writers, the totality of Christian doctrine (Acts 7:38; Rom 3:2; Heb 5:12) and, incredibly, in the Spirit-inspired utterances of ordinary Spirit-filled-believers.

2. The ability to serve the body of Christ by gifts of divine power such as healing, miracles, deliverance from powers of darkness, and others (1 Cor 12:9-10). We are stewards of these gifts. Whatever gift God decides to give us for another individual or group we must pass on. God's gifts are unstinted and unlimited, except by our disobedience and unbelief. As stewards we shall one day be required give an account of our stewardship. God's provision is always lavish, and we are the ones who limit his gifts.

God's grace is multicoloured and his provision is always lavish – we are the ones who limit his gifts.

The Greek word translated as 'provides' is an interesting one; its literal translation is to provide a chorus in the theatre - to defray the cost of putting on a chorus at a public festival. Later on it came to describe the supplying and equipping of an army or a fleet. But in all cases its use conveys the idea of abundance.

Two things are required of us. First, that we are filled with God's Spirit and that we are willing to receive the gifts from the Lord and, secondly, that we obediently use them in the service of those for whom they have been provided. We are to let the spiritual gifts reach a fullness of development through us. Only then will their ultimate objective be achieved, namely that God may be praised. "To him be the glory and the power for ever and ever."

Paying Attention to the Prophetic Word (2 Peter 1:19-21)

And we have the word of the prophets made more certain, and you will do well to pay attention to it, as to a light shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts. Above all, you must understand that no prophecy of scripture came about by the prophet's own interpretation. For prophecy never had its origin in the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.

Peter says that the Old Testament prophecies concerning the Messiah had been made more certain by the transfiguration of Jesus on the mountain, at which event he and the others present were eye-witnesses of his majesty. They were there when the voice came from heaven saying, "This is my son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased" (v17). "You will do well to pay attention to the prophetic word which is for you like a light shining in a dark place", is the admonition Peter addresses to his readers.

We cannot live the whole of our lives in the glory of our transcendent Lord. We are in a sin-darkened world which Peter describes with words that translate to mean dirty, squalid and murky. The time will come when a new day dawns, preceded by the morning star. In classical literature the morning star is Venus, which rises in great brilliance before the dawn. But for Peter it must be Jesus (Rev 22:16). The words 'in your hearts' are thought by some scholars to belong to the next verse.

The Greek word for morning star is phosphorus, which means 'light-bringer'. Until the dawning of the day of Christ the prophetic word is like a light shining in a dark place. We should do well to give attention to it as society deteriorates and things become ever more difficult for those who are wholly committed to Christ.

Peter goes on to show that prophetic Scripture can be relied on totally because it originated not in the human mind or will but in the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. No true prophecy was ever produced by mere human effort. Never at any time was it man's initiative that brought into being the scriptures. Man had his part to play; dwelling in God's presence and listening to his voice, he was told to record what he heard but he had to be careful never to add his own thoughts. Peter likened the prophets to sailing boats carried along by the wind.

No true prophecy was ever produced by mere human effort. Man had his part to play, but he had to be careful to never add to what God was revealing.

Scripture could be depended upon as a light-bringer. The initiative in prophesying must always be with the Holy Spirit. As Paul says after listing the nine supernatural gifts, "All these are the work of one and the same Spirit, and he gives them to each one, just as he determines" (1 Cor 12:11).

The corollary to Peter's statement, ie that it was the Spirit who originated Scripture, is that it can be neither understood nor interpreted by mere human ability. The modern practice of prophesying needs to be brought into line with the fact that no true prophecy ever comes from human initiative, also that no prophecy can be understood apart from the enabling of God's Spirit. How blessed are those who, though living in a wicked and dangerous world, nevertheless have the word of the prophets made more sure.

Prophetic Promises Remembered (2 Peter 3:1-4, 8-13)

Dear friends, this is now my second letter to you. I have written both of them as reminders to stimulate you to wholesome thinking. I want you to recall the words spoken in the past by the holy prophets and the command given by our Lord and Saviour through your apostles.

First of all, you must understand that in the last days scoffers will come...they will say, "Where is this 'coming' he promised?...everything goes on as it has since the beginning of creation"...but do not forget this one thing, dear friends: with the Lord a day is like a thousand years, and a thousand years are like a day. The Lord is not slow in keeping his promise...he is patient with you, not wanting anyone to perish, but everyone to come to repentance. But the day of the Lord will come like a thief...since everything will be destroyed...what kind of people ought you to be? You ought to live holy and godly lives as you look forward to the day of God...in keeping with his promise we are looking forward to a new heaven and a new earth, the home of righteousness.

Peter is concerned that the prophet's words concerning the destruction of both earth and heaven prior to the establishment of the new heaven and the new earth were being forgotten and were ceasing to have a challenging effect on the behaviour of God's people. He recalls the words of Jesus, who challenged the people of his day to watch "because you do not know on what day your Lord will come" (Matt 24:36-44).

Peter in his two letters makes three references to Noah and the Noachic flood (1 Pet 3:20; 2 Pet 2:5; 2 Pet 3:5). The promised flood was a long time in coming but finally it arrived and did exactly what God said it would do.

Isaiah had foretold the establishment of a new heaven and a new earth (Isa 65:17-19, 66:22) but the process was to involve the destruction of things as they are. Since their fathers had died things had gone on just the same and people blamed God for being dilatory. But Peter explained that the delay in fulfilling the promise was due to the patience of God and his great desire that none should perish. Peter told them it was not that God had forgotten but that he loved. The delay is no indication of divine forgetfulness but rather of compassion.

Peter warned believers that God's apparent delay in delivering his promised judgment on the world was due not to forgetfulness, but rather to divine compassion and love.

Patience is likewise required of God's people. The promise of the prophets is that the new heaven and the new earth will be preceded by universal destruction. This ought to exercise a profound effect on Christians' life and conduct.

To Sum Up...

Peter reviews the coming of the Messiah; unfolds the resources of the spiritual gifts; confirms the authority of the prophetic word; and reveals the importance of preparing for the day of the Lord.

First published in Prophecy Today, Vol 7 No 4, July/August 1991.

Why is the language in which Scripture was first written so important?

The original language of the Old Testament is Hebrew. The language through which the New Testament came to the Gentile world was Greek. This is because Greek was the language that was widespread at the time of the first apostles - not because Greek was to replace Hebrew as the language of Scripture.

A lot can be gained by understanding the scriptures through the Hebrew language and with a Hebraic way of thinking. You may already study Hebrew as an aid to Bible study - if not, why not consider doing so?

Hebrew Language and Culture

Language has a powerful effect on the lives of people. Before the advent of widespread communication, and after the dispersion at the Tower of Babel, language was probably the most important barrier keeping communities of people separate from one another. Language fenced them in, as it were. Each group's community traditions and culture then developed within this framework, interacting with and influenced by their language.

Hebrew is one of the Semitic group of languages, which also includes Ugaritic, Canaan-Phoenician dialects and Aramaic (it is also closely related to Ethiopic and Arabic dialects). As we study the growth of the societies of the Semitic nations in the Middle East, we find that language and culture were closely interwoven as the people-groups developed through the centuries. Thus when we are seeking to understand the background of the Bible we need to look at both the language and culture of the people.

The language of the Bible influenced the interpretation of the Bible. Israel is closely defined by the way Torah is interpreted linguistically, and this has been so for thousands of years. This was the case through the wilderness years, at the time of the judges and in the kingdom years, and on to today. In other words, the scriptures of the Tanakh (Old Testament) were interpreted into laws and customs of the community – and so Hebrew language was related to action. Understanding the Hebrew language is therefore key to understanding both Scripture and its application.

The Hebrew language is closely interwoven with Hebrew culture, and has long influenced the interpretation of Scripture.

In the chapter 'The Power of the Word' in his book Heritage: Civilization and the Jews, (1984, Summit Books), Abba Eban says:

The Hebrews entered history suddenly, without much storm or drama. Indeed, history barely noticed that the Jews had entered it at all. Why should the powerful, sophisticated empires in the rich green valleys of the Nile and the Euphrates be impressed by those ragged, wandering tribes? They had no cities, no temples, no buildings, no armies. All that they had were ideas expressed in words.

All subsequent history bears witness to the unconquerable power of those words. A few thousand Hebrew words uttered in Israel a few thousand years ago have been sending sharp impulses of thought and feeling into mankind ever since. We cannot imagine the history of civilizations, of religion, of philosophy, literature, drama, science, art, with acknowledging the potency of those words.

The words preserved the people in their separate identity... (p31)

This is well known to those who make in-depth studies of the power of language. Some branches of the modern science of linguistics concentrate on the psychological, cultural and social effects of language, so important is the link between language and culture. Language is far more than words that convey information. It forms the framework of personality, of society and of culture, both through the nature of the language itself and the practices that are described by it. Language and culture are inseparable.

Language is far more than words that convey information. It forms the framework of personality, society and culture.

With all the implications of this, Hebrew was the chosen language of God to convey his teaching to Israel. Their whole existence, and therefore the background to Christianity, is influenced by this. We gain a workable understanding of the background of the words of Scripture through scholarly translations, but there are other depths to consider through familiarity with the language of Scripture itself.

This is an immense subject on which we can only touch briefly, so we will illustrate with a small number of examples of the specific characteristics of the Hebrew language.

The Alphabet

There are 22 consonants in the Hebrew alphabet. Each letter is a word picture. For example, the Aleph is a representation of an ox, a Bet represents a house, a Gimel represents a camel, a Dalet a door, a Heh a window and a Vav a hook. Words of the scriptures were originally formed with consonants only. The readers and writers of Scripture would have been familiar with how to say each word and so vowels were not developed until much later.

Of all the languages on earth, Hebrew was the language God chose to convey his teaching to Israel, influencing their whole existence and the background to Christianity.

As Menachem Mansoor writes in Biblical Hebrew, Volume 1 (1990, Baker):Hebrew Alphabet, see Photo Credits.

The Hebrew Bible was originally written without vowels. The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, dated between the second century B.C. and the first century A.D., has no vowels. When Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language, several systems of vowel signs were invented by Jewish grammarians to help the public read Hebrew accurately. Our present system was probably adopted about the ninth or tenth century A.D. and is known as the Tiberian – developed by Jewish scholars of Tiberias... (p31)

Vowels were written beneath, above and within the existing consonants, so that the original form of the words without vowels was preserved. The vowels consist of patterns of dots or lines. As Mansoor implies, oral tradition preserved the pronunciation of words, before it was considered necessary to preserve the Hebrew language in written form.

This indicates that though Scripture was written, it was also linked with oral traditions, being connected more to the doing of what was written than philosophising about it. It was primarily a spoken language. The written word was related to the spoken word, which in turn was related to lifestyle and culture.

Hebrew was primarily a spoken language, preserved through oral traditions before it was ever preserved in written form.

The Verb Structures

The verb structure of the English language and other languages is far more complex than Hebrew. There are less variations of a verb in Hebrew; generally speaking, the various tenses of a verb are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to verb roots of three letters.

The verb is to be found at the beginning of a sentence, indicating its priority - as opposed to the priority of the noun in other languages. Hebrew is a 'doing' language, not a philosophical language. The tenses of the verb are also simple, related (in general terms) to completed, continuing or uncompleted action. If we consider the relationship of language with culture we have another clue as to the characteristic of a Hebrew speaker, who speaks in simple and straightforward ways relating to the activities of life.

In Hebrew, verbs are prioritised at the beginning of sentences. Hebrew is a 'doing' language, not a philosophical language.

Figures of Speech

EW Bullinger's book Figures of Speech in the Bible (1993, Baker) is over 1000 pages long, containing hundreds of examples drawn from the whole range of literature to be found in the Bible. Figures of speech reflect aspects of the Hebrew mind. We cannot say that every Hebrew speaker will use anything like that range of figures of speech, any more than every English person will be a literary expert at the level of William Shakespeare. But the Hebrew language nevertheless gives us some insight into the Hebrew culture and mindset.

We will take three examples for illustration: Ellipsis, Parallelism and Hyperbole.

a) Ellipsis

Ellipsis is the figure of speech in which there is an omission of some part of a sentence, which gives the sentence a special emphasis. Generally speaking, a sentence has three components: a subject, a verb and an object. Omission of any of these three is possible. Bullinger put it this way:

The omission arises not from want of thought, or lack of care, or from accident, but from design, in order that we may not stop to think of, or lay stress on, the word omitted, but may dwell on the other words which are not emphasized. For instance, in Matthew 24:19, we read that the Lord Jesus, "gave the loaves to His disciples, and the disciples to the multitude.

There is no sense in the latter sentence, which is incomplete, "the disciples to the multitude," because there is no verb. The verb "gave" is omitted by the figure of Ellipsis for some purpose. If we read the last sentence as it stands, it is read as though Jesus gave the disciples to the multitude!

This at once serves to arrest our attention; it causes us to note the figure employed; we observe the emphasis; we learn the intended lesson. What is it? Why, this; we are asked to dwell on the fact that the disciples gave the bread, but only instrumentally, not really. The Lord Jesus Himself was the alone Giver of that bread. Our thoughts are thus, at once, centred on Him and not on the disciples. (p1)

There are a very large number of examples of ellipses in the Bible. With a mind tuned to this aspect of Hebrew, the reader naturally draws a particular emphasis because of the omitted words. This is an aspect of Hebrew culture as well as something we should understand in the reading of Scripture.

Bullinger demonstrates that there are complex examples of ellipses as well as more simple ones. For example, he perceives a 'Complex Ellipsis' in Romans 6:4: "Therefore we are buried with him by baptism into death: that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the glory of the Father..."

He writes, "The complex Ellipsis here may be thus worked out: "Therefore we are buried with him by His baptism-unto-death (and raised again from the dead), that like as Christ was (buried and) raised again from the dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in newness of life" (p113).

b) Parallelism

Parallelism is another of the figures of speech that gives a sentence a certain emphasis. In this case it is through the repetition of similar, synonymous, or opposite thoughts or words in parallel or successive lines. Bullinger distinguishes seven kinds of parallelism, each bringing their own form of emphasis. Often this figure of speech is considered poetic, but its use is more general than that – it is simply another aspect of the Hebrew way of communication. Here are a few examples.

Psalm 1:1:

Blessed is the man
That walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly,
Nor standeth in the way of sinners,
Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful.

Bullinger states: "Here we have three series of gradation:- walketh / standeth / sitteth; counsel / way / seat; ungodly / sinners / scornful. These gradations point us to the fact that there is a mine of truth contained in the verse, on which a volume might be written." (p350).

Proverbs 10:1

A wise son maketh a glad father;
But a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother.

Here the emphasis is made with a contrast in two lines opposed in sense to one another.

Proverbs 18:24:

There are friends to our own detriment:
But there is a friend that sticketh closer than a brother.

Bullinger says: "The point of the parallel lies in the plural, "friends"...many friends in contrast with the faithfulness of one 'friend'" (p353).

These are simple examples, but the Hebrew language contains examples of growing complexity.

c) Hyperbole

This important figure of speech involves emphasis being given through exaggeration. More is said than is meant to be literally understood, in order to heighten the impact of the phrase. Here are a few of the simpler examples noted by Bullinger (pp423-428):

Genesis 2:24

'Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife.' This does not mean that he is to forsake and no longer to love or care for his parents. So Matthew 19:5

Deuteronomy 1:28:

'The cities are great, and walled up to heaven,' to express their great height.

Judges 20:16:

'Every one could sling stones at an hair and not miss': to describe the wonderful proficiency which the Benjamites had attained in slinging stones.

These few, of the many examples of Hebrew figures of speech in the Bible, illustrate the character of the language in conveying ideas and forming the way of thinking of the Children of Israel, which in turn determines the character of the people and the nation as well as being a framework for our understanding of the scriptures.

The Hebrew Basis of Scripture

Apart from a few places where Aramaic was used (Dan 2:4b-7:28, Ezra 7:12-26, Gen 31:47 and Jer 10:11) the Tanakh (Old Testament) was passed down to us through the Hebrew language. It was faithfully copied from generation to generation in the scribal traditions, so that one small mistake would render the whole manuscript obsolete and require a fresh start to preserve accuracy.

Because the language used for the New Testament was Greek and because we have the Septuagint (Greek translation of the Old Testament), we have insights into the Hebraic background of the New Testament. We can compare words and phrases in the New Testament with the words and phrases of the Septuagint. However, it is always the original Hebrew that is at the root of the scriptures. The authors of the New Testament were entirely Hebrew in their outlook (and, for the most part, background) despite the fact that the message of the Gospels is recorded in Greek.

Every part of Scripture should therefore be read through the mindset of Hebrew. This is to understand both its meaning and its intent for our lives. Through faith in their Hebrew Lord, Christians join the historic community of the Hebrews and accept its Scripture, which is Hebraic in both word and deed.

In summary, then, the construction of the Hebrew language has its own characteristics which must be understood in order to discover the true meaning of Scripture. We have discussed how language and culture are related and suggested that the Hebraic culture is not one of philosophising but one of doing. The whole character of the Hebrew people, as intended by God, is linked to the study of the Hebrew language. We have also mentioned the important fact that the Greek of the New Testament should be understood through Hebrew eyes.

For Reflection and Comment

What benefits are there in reading the Greek New Testament through a Hebrew mind-set?

Next time – final in the series: Timeline and Bibliography

Clifford Denton discusses the principle that all Scripture is founded on the first five books of the Bible - the Torah.

In the last study we looked at the covenant purposes of God to show that there is an overarching principle of covenant throughout all history. This week we will look at another unifying principle of our faith, handed down by the nation of Israel. This is the principle that all Scripture is founded on the Torah, the first five books of the Bible.

All Scripture is for all of God's people. It is not to be seen as the Old Testament for the Jews and the New Testament for Christians. The basis of Scripture, from the Hebraic point of view, is the Torah. Now this is not to say that the basis of our faith is Torah - the basis of our faith is faith in Jesus the Messiah. So how are we to read all Scripture with the right balance?

All Scripture is for all of God's people. It is not to be seen as the Old Testament for the Jews and the New Testament for Christians.

We do not replace Jesus by the Torah, or Torah by Jesus. We see him as a fulfilment, a manifestation - a full realisation of Torah. So in saying that we are to take a Torah perspective on the scriptures, we are neither going into legalism nor a replacement of Jesus. In fact, by reading the scriptures as they should be read, Jesus will be central, and we will come to know him better.

Torah Foundations

So let us consider how Torah is the basis of all Scripture. A well-known and respected Jewish Rabbi, Samson Rafael Hirsh, wrote a book called Horeb (Soncino, 2002). Horeb was the mountain of God where God met with Moses to give him detailed aspects of Torah. Hirsch comments in his introduction:

As far as the term torot is concerned, it can without difficulty be applied to the general religious truths of Judaism because the word Torah, although sometimes used for the whole corpus of our laws, originally signifies teaching or doctrine.

To Hirsch, Horeb means to plant the seed in someone else - hence to implant the seeds of truth and morality in others to transform their lives.

So that torot are the teachings which God has revealed to us of truth and goodness, which we are to accept in our minds and feelings so as to beget in us the knowledge of truth and the decision to do good. The value of torot can therefore never lie in their merely doctrinal or theoretical character, but in their motive power leading to action as a transforming agency in the lives of men.

Hirsch seems to be a Jew speaking about these things from a Christian perspective, but really he is showing us that for both Jews and Gentiles called by faith, there is a purpose in Torah that goes beyond legalism. Legalism is certainly a valid criticism of much of the Jewish world. They took the teachings of Moses and legalised them so much as to take the life from them. But there is also a deep truth in what we read from Rabbi Hirsch, that the Torah is the heart of God's teaching for all mankind. Torah is to be manifest in our lives, and that is the pursuit of the Jew and the believing Gentile - all who come into this one family of faith. Remember that it was Jesus himself who said:

I have come that they may have life, and have it to the full (John 10:10)

All of God's teaching is to bring life. He also said in Matthew 5:17-18:

Do not think that I have come to abolish the law [Torah], or the prophets, I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. For I truly tell you, until heaven and earth disappear, not the smallest letter, not the least stroke of a pen, will by any means disappear from the law [Torah], until everything is accomplished.

There is a purpose in the Torah that goes beyond legalism – it is the heart of God's teaching for all mankind.

We must reject the idea that a Torah foundation to Scripture leads to legalism. It can lead to legalism but need not do so. God does require standards, and he tells us what these are. Therefore, we must be disciplined in our walk of faith, but we must also find God's heart through his teaching. All the laws of God are full of his heart's concern for us. That is why the Holy Spirit came to write the teaching on our hearts.

Where is the Balance?

So where is the balance? How can we re-assess the scriptures and discover their Torah foundation? This is central to our Hebraic and Jewish heritage. Also handed on to us was the realisation that the Jewish world did not quite get it right. Indeed, Jesus criticised many of the teachers of the law about their interpretation and their lifestyle. But even so, it does not mean we should not look again and rediscover what Israel itself is seeking today - as we read from the introduction of the book by Hirsh, concerning the teaching of God at Horeb – "And I sought through all generations..."

We must reject the idea that a Torah foundation to Scripture leads to legalism. It can lead to legalism – but need not do so.

What is it that we are seeking together in that life of faith, using the Bible as our reference point? First, to understand that the Torah is the basic teaching of God. Although the whole Bible is Torah or teaching, the first five books are given a special place - these are the special revelations of God.

These books contain far more than the 'dos and don'ts' that God brought through Moses. We need to reassess what they really bring to us, and with confidence put them at the foundation of our Bible reading. If you go through these books carefully you will find in them the origins of all the truths contained in the Bible.

All Foundational Truths Begin in Torah

The first teaching of the Bible is the account of creation - nowhere else do we find this truth in the entirety of the libraries of the world. As we go on with our reading we begin to learn about God, mankind and their relationship. We learn how sin came into the world and about God's standards for mankind. We learn of the Fall and the situation that we are all in now after the Fall. We learn of the great Flood, and of the covenant purposes of God - all these things are laid out in the Torah.

These five books contain far more than the 'dos and don'ts' that God brought through Moses. If you go through them carefully you can find the origins of all the truths in the Bible.

Abraham's life is fully described in those first five books - as are the lives of Isaac, Jacob, Joseph and later, the twelve tribes of Israel. Finally, the growth of the nation of Israel is described in the books of Torah.

Here too we learn how to apply the metaphors that God wants to teach us, through real life situations. From the toil in the land of Egypt and the release from captivity, we set the foundations for our own experiences with God, both physical and spiritual. We learn about the miracle workings of God. We learn about his active interventions in the world. He has not just separated himself so that it goes like some machine.

We learn about the Feasts of the Lord, which appear first in the Torah. We learn about the Sabbath and its importance. The priesthood is introduced, as are the principles of faith and of prayer.

If you go into the first five books of the Bible and try to assess the number of themes there, you will find them to be countless. We must, therefore, come away from a mindset that these are irrelevant books for Christians. They are the foundation of the faith for Israel and those saved from the Gentile world.

We must come away from a mindset that these books are irrelevant for Christians. They are the foundation of our faith.

Torah Dependency of all Scripture

So then, if Torah is the basis, how does the rest of Scripture fit into its pattern? The Jewish way of dividing Scripture is very valid. The division into three sections according to tradition is first the Torah itself, then the Nevi'im (or Prophets) and finally the Ketuvim (the Writings). That is the traditional way that was handed on to us.

The Bible books are set out in a different order in the Hebrew bible. If we look at them in those three sections, we can see better how they fit together as we try to re-establish the Torah as the basis of all Bible study.

The Prophets

What about the Prophets then? What message in addition to Torah do the prophets bring? The prophets have one purpose and it is Torah-based. When the people of God begin to stray, they also begin to not listen to him. They do not read the signs around them and they gradually ignore what God is saying. So God sends along a prophet, or a prophetic word, or prophetic movement in order to remind people and call them back to the one true God. How do the people get called back to the one true God? They must be called back to his teaching - to what he requires of us.

So the simple task of the prophet is to call the people of God back to himself through his teaching. In that sense, the prophets are Torah-based. There is second purpose in the prophets - a message that looks to the future for God's people. They all say, as it were, "Israel - people of God, cleave to God through his teaching. It may be hard but one day he will make it easier, because in the future there is a promised Messiah, and there is a promised new heaven and a new earth - that day will come but hang on - keep with him, walk it through with him in the meanwhile."

Even that is a Torah-based message, however, because it is all about Jesus, and Jesus is the fulfilment of Torah. In a subtle way the futuristic aspect of the prophetic message is aligned with the past prophetic message - to remember Torah and walk with your God. If you approach the prophets in that way you'll find that Torah is the basis of their whole message, and without Torah they have no real foundation. They do not bring a new message, but they remind you of an old message.

The prophets do not bring a new message, but remind you of an old one.

They may well give some clues as to what Torah really means, such as we find in Micah 6:8:

He has shown you, O mortal, what is good. And what does the LORD require of you? To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God.

Sometimes, like this, the prophets give glimpses of the heart message of Torah, but it is not a new message, it is a message in context. Here is a simple example of how this applies. In the book of Amos, chapter 4, we read:

"I also withheld rain from you when the harvest was still three months away. I sent rain on one town, but withheld it from another. One field had rain; another had none and dried up. People staggered from town to town for water but did not get enough to drink, yet you have not returned to me," declares the LORD. "Many times I struck your gardens and vineyards, destroying them with blight and mildew. Locusts devoured your fig and olive trees, yet you have not returned to me," declares the LORD.

"I sent plagues among you as I did to Egypt. I killed your young men with the sword, along with your captured horses. I filled your nostrils with the stench of your camps, yet you have not returned to me," declares the LORD.

Amos repeats one sign after another from God that has fallen upon the nation of Israel with increasing intensity as God's judgments became more severe. The people of Israel had lost sight of the signs of God, lost their walk with him, turning away - and so a prophet came to warn them.

But what about these signs? Well, Israel's history - Israel's prophetic history - can always go back to the Torah portions. If you look at Deuteronomy 28 and 29 you see it is exactly what God said that he would do. Part of this teaching was how Israel would receive blessings or curses from the Lord.

If you fully obey the LORD your God and carefully follow all his commands I give you today, the LORD your God will set you high above all the nations on earth. All these blessings will come on you and accompany you if you obey the LORD your God: You will be blessed in the city and blessed in the country. The fruit of your womb will be blessed, and the crops of your land and the young of your livestock—the calves of your herds and the lambs of your flocks...

...However, if you do not obey the LORD your God and do not carefully follow all his commands and decrees I am giving you today, all these curses will come on you and overtake you: You will be cursed in the city and cursed in the country...

So what does Israel perceive when things start to go wrong - blight on the crops, plague on the cattle, things going wrong in their community life, rain here and not rain there - these are signs from God, signs that were part of his teaching programme, and here it is in Deuteronomy - a central book of Torah. Amos did not bring a new message. It should not have been a surprise to Israel, but they were not heeding the signs, so a prophet came to explain what was happening. The prophet's message was Torah central.

The Writings

In 2 Chronicles 7 there is a similar parallel, and this is part of the 'Writings'. Solomon had built the great temple to the Lord and wanted to dedicate it. In 2 Chronicles 6, he asks God if he will bring blessing upon this place. The Lord responds and says:

"I have heard your prayer and have chosen this place for myself as a temple for sacrifices. When I shut up the heavens so that there is no rain, or command locusts to devour the land or send a plague among my people, if my people, who are called by my name, will humble themselves and pray and seek my face and turn from their wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven, and I will forgive their sin and will heal their land. (2 Chron 7:12-14)

Here again, God speaks in a way that is founded upon all that went before in Torah. His ways have not changed. This is just one example, but in one way or another, this is verified wherever we read in Scripture. All the teaching of the whole Bible is bound together by principles and parallels from the Torah. Christians, like Jews, have this same heritage.

All the teaching of the whole Bible is bound together by principles and parallels from the Torah.

Another clear example of the way the Torah, rightly interpreted, is in the heart of all God's people, is in Psalm 119: "O I love your law [Torah], I meditate upon it night and day." Again, in Job, he accepted all that he had suffered, when he realised that God is his Creator. That was the central part of the message of Job - a Torah-based message for a suffering world.

New Testament

Moving into the New Testament scriptures, we remember that Jesus said that he came to fulfil Torah - not one small letter or stroke of the pen would be taken away until all is fulfilled. On the road to Emmaus he reminded the two disciples of how he was to be found there in the Torah and the prophets and the writings. He showed that he was at the heart of God's teaching, rather than replacing it. All the gospels are about fulfilment.

Paul, whose writings form a substantial part of the rest of the New Testament, was first taught as a Jewish rabbi, at the best schools of the day. He was taught about the Torah basis of all scripture and Torah basis of Jewish lifestyle, before ever he went out with the Gospel message. Just as it was for Paul, we should read Torah not with a legalistic approach but by the power of the Holy Spirit. Paul does not deny this teaching; he brings a right interpretation of this teaching.

We, too, need to read the whole of the New Testament in the light of Torah. Our flawed understanding is in a wrong perception of Torah, rather than setting it on correct foundations. If we have a wrong perception of Torah we are afraid to touch it, but Torah reveals the heart of God. This is fulfilled in the New Covenant, written onto our hearts. In this way, the entire Bible is one united whole which brings us to that purpose.

Our foundational Scriptural inheritance is the same for Jews and for Gentiles.

For Reflection and Comment

Can you devise a reading plan which keeps the Torah in balance with all Scripture?

(Consider Under the Fig Tree in the Online Courses of www.tishrei.org)

Next time: Root and Fruit

Clifford Denton asks what we can learn about the Church's Hebraic foundations from looking at Jewish literature, from the Torah to the Talmud and the Halakhah and beyond.

When we consider the separation of the Christian Church from its Hebraic foundations we see not just a reaction against Judaism but an over-reaction against both Judaism and its literary sources. It is true that there can be no compromise in the fundamental issues of the Gospel message, but a Christian fear of Judaising has also contributed to the Church's complete severance from all interest in Judaism.

There are positive benefits to be regained from studying Jewish sources. They can help Christians to understand the background from which Christianity emerged and also help us to understand the Jewish world and so build bridges between the two communities, in a non-compromising but respectful way.

Introduction

In Our Father Abraham (p111), Dr Marvin Wilson poses the following questions:

What can be done to overcome the apathy and neglect of this great treasure of our Hebrew foundation? How can the Church become re-nourished from that Hebraic "root that supports it"? In short, what guidelines should the Church follow if the Old Testament is to be restored to its proper place of emphasis and authority?

There follow six guidelines, the sixth of which is as follows:

A sixth guideline concerns the need to be familiar with other early Jewish sources which provide linguistic, theological, and historical insight into both Testaments. We have already seen that the Old Testament is the main source upon which New Testament thought and life are based. But we have also observed that it is not the only Jewish literature essential for understanding the Judaism of Jesus' day. (p118)

Dr Wilson points out that various stages of Jewish history have been typified in different pieces of literature. Among the vast scope are the Oral traditions, later codified into the Mishnah, the Qumran Scrolls, the apocryphal writings and the apocalyptic literature. All of these contain information that can give understanding to some passages of the Bible. Beyond these are other pieces of literature that help us to understand the Jewish world itself, out of which Christianity emerged.

Through history Christians have over-reacted against Jewish literature for fear of Judaising, but there are positive benefits to understanding these writings.

It is appropriate for a Bible student to have a basic familiarity with this literature and to have a grasp of how to use it. We will survey some of the main sources in this study. The book we are quoting in our reference material, Back to the Sources, is one of the basic books that can be used for reference (Ed Barry W Holtz, Simon & Schuster, 1984). Following this, further and deeper study comes from reviewing the sources themselves.

Survey: The Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible is itself the main source for Judaism. It is the same as the Old Testament but it is considered in somewhat different ways by Jews than by Christians. Jews call it the TaNaKh denoting the three sections, Torah (Teaching), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). The books of the Christian Old Testament follow the order of the Septuagint (the Greek translation) but this is different from the Hebrew Bible, which comes from the faithful copying of the Masorites.

The Torah is the whole of the teaching of the TaNaKh, but more specifically the first five books which are also called the Books of Moses. These five books, called the Pentateuch in Christian tradition, are considered to be the foundation of all Bible study for the Jew. They are divided into 54 weekly synagogue readings (parashot) each about 5 chapters long. The Torah is also known as the Chumash (the five-fold entity). The Hebrew Bible is divided into 35 books. The Christian version divides some of the books into two and contains the same material in 39 books.

The main literary source for Judaism is the Tanakh, or the Old Testament, which sub-divides into the Torah (the first five books), the Nevi'im (the Prophets) and the Ketuvim (the Writings).

The division of the Hebrew Bible, its ordering and its Torah priority followed by the message of the Prophets and the writings (which include history, as well as other forms of literature) speak of the Jewish approach to the teaching of God.

Talmud set.The Talmud

The Talmud has two main divisions, the Mishnah and the Gemara. Both of the words Talmud and Gemara mean study, the first being a Hebrew word and the second Aramaic. The core of the Talmud is the Mishnah, a codification of the Oral teachings thought to come from Moses and considered by Jews to be as inspired as the written Torah. The Gemara is a commentary on the Mishnah. There are two versions of the Talmud, both compiled in the dispersion after 70 AD in order to preserve the Oral Traditions, one being the Babylonian Talmud and the other the Jerusalem Talmud.

In Back to the Sources (p129) we read:

'When the persecutions of Hadrian were over, our Sages gathered at Usha: R. Judah, and R. Nehemiah, and R. Meir, and R. Yose, and R. Simeon ben Yohai, and R. Eliezer the son of R. Yose the Galilean, and R. Eliezer ben Jacob. They sent a message to the elders of the Galilee, saying, "Let whoever has learned come and teach, and whoever has not learned come and learn." They gathered together, learned and taught, and did as the times required' (Song of Songs Rabbah 2:16)

Although this story appears only in a relatively late source, it reflects the central motive of the rabbinic movement from the time of its first appearance in Jewish life. Convinced that Jewish life could recover from its defeats at the hands of Rome only to renewed dedication to "Torah", rabbis organized themselves to spread their teaching, gain disciples, and achieve the largest possible role in Jewish life. Of all the books that ancient rabbis have left behind, the most revealing, the most challenging, and the most rewarding is the Talmud.

The word "Torah" was just placed in quotation marks to call attention to its special meaning. For the ancient rabbis, "Torah" meant far more than the five books attributed to Moses that Jews customarily call by that name. For them, Torah was the Divine Wisdom which had existed before the world came into being (see Prov. 8:22-31), indeed, the blueprint according to which Creation had followed its proper course. Torah included all possible knowledge of God's will, of the life the Creator intended for the Chosen People to live. All things, from the most trivial to the most sublime, were within its realm.

Basing this notion on certain hints in the text of Scripture, ancient rabbis taught that the revelation granted to Moses had been delivered in two forms, a smaller revelation in writing and the larger one kept oral. This "Oral Torah" had been transmitted faithfully by the leaders of each generation to their successors, by Moses to Joshua, and then to the elders, then to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly, to the leaders of the Pharisees, and finally to the earliest rabbis. Thus only the rabbis knew the whole Torah – written and oral – and such knowledge could qualify anyone for legitimate leadership over the people of Israel.

The Mishnah (the word comes from the root to recite) is divided into six orders, each dealing with a broad area of Jewish life, and then into subdivisions. Its language is very legal and so the Talmud is considered as the source of Jewish law.

The Talmud contains the Mishnah, the Oral teachings thought to come from Moses and be inspired by the Holy Spirit, and the Gemara, which is a commentary on the Mishnah.

Halakhah

The word Halakhah comes from the verb Halakh, meaning to walk or to go. Jewish tradition is that a person needs to know the exact way to carry out the laws of God – to walk them out. Thus the set of rules often considered as Jewish Law, governing Jewish life, is known as Halakhah. We read from Back to the Sources (p138):

It must be kept in mind, however, that halakhah embraces far more than the term "law" usually suggested in English; its subject matter is much broader, and much Jewish "law" is in principle unenforceable. Who, for example, really knows which kitchens in a given community are kosher, or which members of that community secretly violate the Sabbath?

Although the Mishnah only looks like a law code, nevertheless, most of its content pertains to the halakhah; although the Talmud only looks like a commentary on the Mishnah, the same can be said of it. The earliest public role in the Jewish community that the rabbis were able to achieve was as judges and community officials. Halakhah naturally became their chief concern, a concern that fit their theological conviction that Judaism essentially amounts to learning precisely what the Torah commands and then doing it.

Summary So Far

Through Torah to Talmud and then to Halakhah, we are able to perceive the role of Jewish literature and traditions throughout the centuries. Other literature is supplementary to that great striving to live in the wisdom and practice of God's teaching.

The Christian will perceive in this what seems a more legalistic approach to the same end as his own approach to God's teaching. Nevertheless, a common aim between Christians and Jews can be understood: to walk out the teaching of God. Carefully appraising these things can lead to an understanding of, as well as a freedom to interpret, such historical documents within the framework of both Judaism and Christianity. This does not give authority to all interpretations of biblical truth, but it can bring understanding of different points of view.

Though often perceived by Christians to be legalistic, the Jewish literature nevertheless represents an aim shared by both faiths: to walk out the teaching of God.

We now mention some of the other major sources, to complete this brief introductory survey.

Tosefta

Tosefta is the Aramaic word meaning Supplement. These are a collection of older traditions similar to the Mishnah, but that the compilers of the Mishnah chose not to include. The Tosefta is arranged like the Mishnah into Orders and Tractates. There is some overlap of themes with those of the Mishnah, and some themes that have no clear connection.

Baraita

Baraita is the Aramaic word meaning Outside. These are traditions that can be attributed to a given rabbi and, though authoritative in some way, are not parts of the Mishnah. They are used as means for discussion and contrast between rabbinic schools of thought.

The authorities who were used in the Mishnah are termed the Tannaim (from the Aramaic meaning repeater). Similarly, the authorities who produced the Gemara are called the Amoraim (from the Aramaic meaning discusser).

Aggadah

Aggadah comes from the Hebrew word meaning Discourse. This is the term for non-halakhic Talmudic discussion. This covers rabbinic narrative in the form of stories about Bible heroes or great rabbis of earlier generations. They contain moral exhortation, theological speculation and also a great deal of folklore.

Midrash

We quote from Back to the Sources (p177-179):

The Talmud...is the best-known of the texts produced by rabbinic Judaism. It has formed the core of the curriculum of Jewish learning for many hundreds of years, and it stands as the foundation upon which later Jewish literature, particularly legal writing, rests. And yet the Talmud does not represent the entirety of rabbinic literature. Another body of work – less familiar but probably more accessible to the contemporary reader – remains to be explored...the texts known as the Midrash, a type of literature so significant that in many ways it can be seen as the central enterprise of almost all Jewish religious writing until the modern period.

...there is no single book called the Midrash. Despite the popular use of the term, one cannot with accuracy use the phrase "the Midrash says"...Midrash is a type of literature; it is...a kind of process or activity, but there is no one Midrash. Rather there are collections of Midrashim (plural of Midrash) which were put together at various times and by various editors and authors over the course of many hundreds of years. The great flowering of Midrash was roughly between the years 400 and 1200 C.E. But it is important to note that originally, midrashic literature was oral – sermons preached in the synagogues and teachings of various sages. During the years mentioned, Midrashim were edited, organized, and written down, but midrashic texts often represent traditions a good deal older than the period of the written books.

The term Midrash is rooted in the Hebrew meaning of searching out and interpreting, and applies to studies of both halakhah and aggadah.

Targummim

These are the Aramaic translations of the Tanakh.

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

We mention briefly here other literature that is a basis for research into the background of the Bible and the Jewish community of the biblical period. There is a wide range of apocryphal (linked to the root meaning hidden) literature that was preserved in the Septuagint but not the Masoretic text. These books often have the names of Bible characters but are not to be validly ascribed to them.

The apocryphal literature is sometimes included with other writings under the term Pseudepigrapha, which also includes the works of Philo (20 BC - 50 AD), the writings of Josephus Flavius (37 - 100 AD) and the Qumran texts, among other material. The Qumran texts contain copies of most biblical books, apocryphal writings and other writings of the community living in the region of the Dead Sea where the scrolls were discovered.

For Reflection and Comment

In what way can we take useful interest in sources of Judaism without compromising the Gospel?

Next time: The Shemah

'Reading Backwards' by Richard B Hays (SPCK, 2015, 176 pages, £16.99, available from Amazon for £14.88)

Anyone interested in reading God's Word more informatively and effectively will find this a fascinating and valuable aid towards understanding an important aspect of Bible study: namely how the New Testament writers used what we now call the Old Testament. The aim of the book is to uncover the strategies the Gospel writers employed when appropriating Israel's scriptures in order to provide their readers with a fuller portrait of Jesus, a methodology that Hays describes as 'reading backwards'.

The book is based on a series of six lectures the author delivered at Cambridge University but it is very accessible rather than too academic. There are, however, useful endnotes and a full bibliography for those wanting to take these studies further. The time constraints of a lecture series means the book cannot cover such an extensive topic in the depth it deserves, but it is still long enough to contain many useful examples, and if it leaves you wanting more then it will have achieved one of its main aims.

The structure of the book is very straightforward. The introduction sets out the main points involved and emphasises what the book is and is not about. Then each Gospel is examined in turn to discover how the individual writers used Israel's scriptures in their own distinctive way. Hay discusses the strengths and weakness of each writer's approach, and explains how each contributes to the composite multi-faceted picture of Jesus that results. The conclusion provides a good summary, tying everything together in a satisfying way.

Hays uncovers the strategies used by the Gospel writers to appropriate Old Testament scriptures in relation to Jesus, each of which builds a composite, multi-faceted picture of our Saviour."

There are many ways in which this book could be useful and significant. It will help promote the importance of Hebraic roots within Christianity, and also counter the heretical view that the Old Testament is obsolete or portrays 'a different God' (a heresy known as Marcionism).

Furthermore, we can begin to appreciate that the Gospel writers are actually teaching us how to read the Old Testament more as God intended. In particular, the technique of 'reading backwards' illustrates how prophecy is to be evaluated in retrospect and that it should not always be treated as predictive. Also it is to be hoped that, via the general approach of the Gospel writers to their Scriptures and more specifically from the examples given, thoughtful readers of the New Testament might become better attuned to hear for themselves both implicit and explicit resonances from the Old Testament. Given all this, a richer Bible reading experience should be the overall result.