Haman, the Nazis, and the roots of anti-Semitism

Clifford Denton asks what we can learn about the Church's Hebraic foundations from looking at Jewish literature, from the Torah to the Talmud and the Halakhah and beyond.

When we consider the separation of the Christian Church from its Hebraic foundations we see not just a reaction against Judaism but an over-reaction against both Judaism and its literary sources. It is true that there can be no compromise in the fundamental issues of the Gospel message, but a Christian fear of Judaising has also contributed to the Church's complete severance from all interest in Judaism.

There are positive benefits to be regained from studying Jewish sources. They can help Christians to understand the background from which Christianity emerged and also help us to understand the Jewish world and so build bridges between the two communities, in a non-compromising but respectful way.

Introduction

In Our Father Abraham (p111), Dr Marvin Wilson poses the following questions:

What can be done to overcome the apathy and neglect of this great treasure of our Hebrew foundation? How can the Church become re-nourished from that Hebraic "root that supports it"? In short, what guidelines should the Church follow if the Old Testament is to be restored to its proper place of emphasis and authority?

There follow six guidelines, the sixth of which is as follows:

A sixth guideline concerns the need to be familiar with other early Jewish sources which provide linguistic, theological, and historical insight into both Testaments. We have already seen that the Old Testament is the main source upon which New Testament thought and life are based. But we have also observed that it is not the only Jewish literature essential for understanding the Judaism of Jesus' day. (p118)

Dr Wilson points out that various stages of Jewish history have been typified in different pieces of literature. Among the vast scope are the Oral traditions, later codified into the Mishnah, the Qumran Scrolls, the apocryphal writings and the apocalyptic literature. All of these contain information that can give understanding to some passages of the Bible. Beyond these are other pieces of literature that help us to understand the Jewish world itself, out of which Christianity emerged.

Through history Christians have over-reacted against Jewish literature for fear of Judaising, but there are positive benefits to understanding these writings.

It is appropriate for a Bible student to have a basic familiarity with this literature and to have a grasp of how to use it. We will survey some of the main sources in this study. The book we are quoting in our reference material, Back to the Sources, is one of the basic books that can be used for reference (Ed Barry W Holtz, Simon & Schuster, 1984). Following this, further and deeper study comes from reviewing the sources themselves.

Survey: The Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible is itself the main source for Judaism. It is the same as the Old Testament but it is considered in somewhat different ways by Jews than by Christians. Jews call it the TaNaKh denoting the three sections, Torah (Teaching), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). The books of the Christian Old Testament follow the order of the Septuagint (the Greek translation) but this is different from the Hebrew Bible, which comes from the faithful copying of the Masorites.

The Torah is the whole of the teaching of the TaNaKh, but more specifically the first five books which are also called the Books of Moses. These five books, called the Pentateuch in Christian tradition, are considered to be the foundation of all Bible study for the Jew. They are divided into 54 weekly synagogue readings (parashot) each about 5 chapters long. The Torah is also known as the Chumash (the five-fold entity). The Hebrew Bible is divided into 35 books. The Christian version divides some of the books into two and contains the same material in 39 books.

The main literary source for Judaism is the Tanakh, or the Old Testament, which sub-divides into the Torah (the first five books), the Nevi'im (the Prophets) and the Ketuvim (the Writings).

The division of the Hebrew Bible, its ordering and its Torah priority followed by the message of the Prophets and the writings (which include history, as well as other forms of literature) speak of the Jewish approach to the teaching of God.

Talmud set.The Talmud

The Talmud has two main divisions, the Mishnah and the Gemara. Both of the words Talmud and Gemara mean study, the first being a Hebrew word and the second Aramaic. The core of the Talmud is the Mishnah, a codification of the Oral teachings thought to come from Moses and considered by Jews to be as inspired as the written Torah. The Gemara is a commentary on the Mishnah. There are two versions of the Talmud, both compiled in the dispersion after 70 AD in order to preserve the Oral Traditions, one being the Babylonian Talmud and the other the Jerusalem Talmud.

In Back to the Sources (p129) we read:

'When the persecutions of Hadrian were over, our Sages gathered at Usha: R. Judah, and R. Nehemiah, and R. Meir, and R. Yose, and R. Simeon ben Yohai, and R. Eliezer the son of R. Yose the Galilean, and R. Eliezer ben Jacob. They sent a message to the elders of the Galilee, saying, "Let whoever has learned come and teach, and whoever has not learned come and learn." They gathered together, learned and taught, and did as the times required' (Song of Songs Rabbah 2:16)

Although this story appears only in a relatively late source, it reflects the central motive of the rabbinic movement from the time of its first appearance in Jewish life. Convinced that Jewish life could recover from its defeats at the hands of Rome only to renewed dedication to "Torah", rabbis organized themselves to spread their teaching, gain disciples, and achieve the largest possible role in Jewish life. Of all the books that ancient rabbis have left behind, the most revealing, the most challenging, and the most rewarding is the Talmud.

The word "Torah" was just placed in quotation marks to call attention to its special meaning. For the ancient rabbis, "Torah" meant far more than the five books attributed to Moses that Jews customarily call by that name. For them, Torah was the Divine Wisdom which had existed before the world came into being (see Prov. 8:22-31), indeed, the blueprint according to which Creation had followed its proper course. Torah included all possible knowledge of God's will, of the life the Creator intended for the Chosen People to live. All things, from the most trivial to the most sublime, were within its realm.

Basing this notion on certain hints in the text of Scripture, ancient rabbis taught that the revelation granted to Moses had been delivered in two forms, a smaller revelation in writing and the larger one kept oral. This "Oral Torah" had been transmitted faithfully by the leaders of each generation to their successors, by Moses to Joshua, and then to the elders, then to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly, to the leaders of the Pharisees, and finally to the earliest rabbis. Thus only the rabbis knew the whole Torah – written and oral – and such knowledge could qualify anyone for legitimate leadership over the people of Israel.

The Mishnah (the word comes from the root to recite) is divided into six orders, each dealing with a broad area of Jewish life, and then into subdivisions. Its language is very legal and so the Talmud is considered as the source of Jewish law.

The Talmud contains the Mishnah, the Oral teachings thought to come from Moses and be inspired by the Holy Spirit, and the Gemara, which is a commentary on the Mishnah.

Halakhah

The word Halakhah comes from the verb Halakh, meaning to walk or to go. Jewish tradition is that a person needs to know the exact way to carry out the laws of God – to walk them out. Thus the set of rules often considered as Jewish Law, governing Jewish life, is known as Halakhah. We read from Back to the Sources (p138):

It must be kept in mind, however, that halakhah embraces far more than the term "law" usually suggested in English; its subject matter is much broader, and much Jewish "law" is in principle unenforceable. Who, for example, really knows which kitchens in a given community are kosher, or which members of that community secretly violate the Sabbath?

Although the Mishnah only looks like a law code, nevertheless, most of its content pertains to the halakhah; although the Talmud only looks like a commentary on the Mishnah, the same can be said of it. The earliest public role in the Jewish community that the rabbis were able to achieve was as judges and community officials. Halakhah naturally became their chief concern, a concern that fit their theological conviction that Judaism essentially amounts to learning precisely what the Torah commands and then doing it.

Summary So Far

Through Torah to Talmud and then to Halakhah, we are able to perceive the role of Jewish literature and traditions throughout the centuries. Other literature is supplementary to that great striving to live in the wisdom and practice of God's teaching.

The Christian will perceive in this what seems a more legalistic approach to the same end as his own approach to God's teaching. Nevertheless, a common aim between Christians and Jews can be understood: to walk out the teaching of God. Carefully appraising these things can lead to an understanding of, as well as a freedom to interpret, such historical documents within the framework of both Judaism and Christianity. This does not give authority to all interpretations of biblical truth, but it can bring understanding of different points of view.

Though often perceived by Christians to be legalistic, the Jewish literature nevertheless represents an aim shared by both faiths: to walk out the teaching of God.

We now mention some of the other major sources, to complete this brief introductory survey.

Tosefta

Tosefta is the Aramaic word meaning Supplement. These are a collection of older traditions similar to the Mishnah, but that the compilers of the Mishnah chose not to include. The Tosefta is arranged like the Mishnah into Orders and Tractates. There is some overlap of themes with those of the Mishnah, and some themes that have no clear connection.

Baraita

Baraita is the Aramaic word meaning Outside. These are traditions that can be attributed to a given rabbi and, though authoritative in some way, are not parts of the Mishnah. They are used as means for discussion and contrast between rabbinic schools of thought.

The authorities who were used in the Mishnah are termed the Tannaim (from the Aramaic meaning repeater). Similarly, the authorities who produced the Gemara are called the Amoraim (from the Aramaic meaning discusser).

Aggadah

Aggadah comes from the Hebrew word meaning Discourse. This is the term for non-halakhic Talmudic discussion. This covers rabbinic narrative in the form of stories about Bible heroes or great rabbis of earlier generations. They contain moral exhortation, theological speculation and also a great deal of folklore.

Midrash

We quote from Back to the Sources (p177-179):

The Talmud...is the best-known of the texts produced by rabbinic Judaism. It has formed the core of the curriculum of Jewish learning for many hundreds of years, and it stands as the foundation upon which later Jewish literature, particularly legal writing, rests. And yet the Talmud does not represent the entirety of rabbinic literature. Another body of work – less familiar but probably more accessible to the contemporary reader – remains to be explored...the texts known as the Midrash, a type of literature so significant that in many ways it can be seen as the central enterprise of almost all Jewish religious writing until the modern period.

...there is no single book called the Midrash. Despite the popular use of the term, one cannot with accuracy use the phrase "the Midrash says"...Midrash is a type of literature; it is...a kind of process or activity, but there is no one Midrash. Rather there are collections of Midrashim (plural of Midrash) which were put together at various times and by various editors and authors over the course of many hundreds of years. The great flowering of Midrash was roughly between the years 400 and 1200 C.E. But it is important to note that originally, midrashic literature was oral – sermons preached in the synagogues and teachings of various sages. During the years mentioned, Midrashim were edited, organized, and written down, but midrashic texts often represent traditions a good deal older than the period of the written books.

The term Midrash is rooted in the Hebrew meaning of searching out and interpreting, and applies to studies of both halakhah and aggadah.

Targummim

These are the Aramaic translations of the Tanakh.

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

We mention briefly here other literature that is a basis for research into the background of the Bible and the Jewish community of the biblical period. There is a wide range of apocryphal (linked to the root meaning hidden) literature that was preserved in the Septuagint but not the Masoretic text. These books often have the names of Bible characters but are not to be validly ascribed to them.

The apocryphal literature is sometimes included with other writings under the term Pseudepigrapha, which also includes the works of Philo (20 BC - 50 AD), the writings of Josephus Flavius (37 - 100 AD) and the Qumran texts, among other material. The Qumran texts contain copies of most biblical books, apocryphal writings and other writings of the community living in the region of the Dead Sea where the scrolls were discovered.

For Reflection and Comment

In what way can we take useful interest in sources of Judaism without compromising the Gospel?

Next time: The Shemah