Greek influences on Christian theology

The most important book you’ve never heard of…

The Didache (pronounced did-ah-kay) has been described as the most important book you’ve never heard of. So what exactly is it and does it deserve this accolade?

Its full title, ‘The Teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles through the Twelve Apostles’, explains its purpose and content. It is an early Church manual: the teaching of the early Jewish followers of Jesus to the new Gentile believers.

The Jerusalem Council of Acts 15 agreed that God had indeed “opened the door of faith to the Gentiles” (Acts 14:27). But after the Council’s ruling of four initial prohibitions (Acts 15:29), what else was required of Gentiles if they were to progress in the faith? If they were not expected to keep Torah as fully as their Jewish brethren, what did they need in order to walk in the same Way?

Here in the Didache we find compiled the necessary instruction to prepare them for immersion and membership in the Body of Christ. As such, this special document fulfilled a key role in the Great Commission to make disciples (not just converts) of all nations.

Walking in the Way

The Didache can be seen as a kind of apostolic Mishnah for new Gentile believers. Certainly there is a Jewish quality inherent in the text. The opening is particularly Jewish, and the language and prayers in later chapters have direct parallels and counterparts in the Judaism of the time. All the early believers in Messiah were still within the fold of Judaism, so this is hardly surprising.

Another similarity with the Mishnah is that the Didache is likely to have been passed on orally before being written down, as evidenced by certain mnemonic devices within the text. Most scholars believe its style places it in the mid-1^st Century, though some dispute this. If it is this early then it falls within the oral tradition of the time. The long title, quoted above, would have been added later when it was written down (incidentally, shorter versions of the title do exist, namely ‘The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles’, and just ‘The Teaching’, or ‘Didache’).

The Didache is an early Church instruction manual setting out teaching for helping new Gentile converts to become disciples.

The Didache is an anonymous document. Although the 12 apostles are mentioned in the title, they are not referred to in the text. Some see similarities with the Epistle of Barnabas and so suggest a link with him and hence with Paul. However, we cannot be sure if any of the apostles were directly involved in its production or transmission, although there is no doubt that the essential thrust of the Didache follows the same path and breathes the same spirit.

The Didache has been described as having an archaic simplicity (which fits its early dating). Its expressions are primitive. It contains no detailed creed, no exalted titles of Jesus, no lofty theology or doctrine. Rather it is a simple work of everyday living, reflecting the Jewish concept of ‘halakhah’, or walking with God. Its aim is to pass on the Way of Life as taught by Jesus (rather than provide a description of him and his works), directing Gentile converts in the step-by-step transformation necessary for full participation in their new faith.

Before the ‘Parting of the Ways’

The Didache clearly represents a time before Christianity became separated from Judaism. Nothing in it indicates the later ‘parting of the ways’. It has been described as one of the last voices of authentic apostolic faith: the final flowering of Judeo-Christianity before Greek influence and theology took charge. This alone makes it a fascinating and worthwhile document to study.

The Didache was popular among early believers and enjoyed wide circulation. Numerous early Church writers mentioned it and quoted from it frequently, for instance Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius and Athanasius. It is mentioned as being read in churches, but was not considered canonical or to be used to confirm doctrine. However, it could be seen as being “appointed by the Fathers to be read by those who newly join us and who wish for instruction in the word of godliness.”¹

This is recorded as continuing until the 4^th Century, but by the 5^th Century the Didache fell out of popularity and was referenced much less. It does get an occasional mention in later times, but for centuries it was assumed that copies no longer existed. Then came a surprise discovery in 1873.

The Didache has been described as one of the last voices of authentic apostolic faith.

An Astonishing Find

A Greek Orthodox Archbishop, Philotheos Bryennios, was browsing in the library of the Greek Convent of the Holy Sepulchre in Constantinople and found a text lodged between two longer works in a single bound volume of Christian manuscripts. Somehow it had escaped the notice of previous cataloguers. Was this find too good to be true? Might it be a modern forgery? After a few years it was judged authentic and dated as a copy from 1056. It was finally published in 1883. When the first English translation was released in 1884, it sold 5,000 copies on the first day.

Although older fragments have been found since, this remains the only complete manuscript. Known as Codex Hierosolymitanus 54, it now resides in the library of the Greek Orthodox patriarchate in Jerusalem. In 1922 two Greek fragments were found in Egypt which were textually very close to that found in Istanbul, thus verifying its accuracy. In addition, a Coptic fragment from Cairo, dating back to the 5^th Century, was published in 1924, and another nearly complete Gregorian version was found in Constantinople in 1923, though never published. The 1873 manuscript remains the most reliable and complete.

Inevitably, a find such as this created a lot of controversy - especially where its contents didn’t agree with then-current Church traditions! The Catholic Church appreciated some bits of the Didache but was dismayed that some of its liturgy wasn’t there. Similarly, Protestants, pleased to see these omissions, did not like the emphasis on what they saw as ‘works of righteousness’, such as fasting twice a week. Both sides inevitably attempted various interpretations to place it more comfortably within their own traditions.

Intended for Study

The Didache is a short work, approximately one third of the length of Mark’s Gospel. It is composed of 16 short chapters (some very short), containing just 2,190 words in total. The vocabulary and grammar reflect the popular koine Greek of the 1^st Century. Its style is simple and terse. It uses only 552 different words, of which 504 are found in the New Testament. All this again points to an early date.

The Didache is a short work, approximately one third of the length of Mark’s Gospel.

The material of the Didache was probably intended to be studied in pairs, in a one-to-one format, as the entire text uses the second person singular. This is similar to the rabbinic concept of chavruta, where the novice studies at times with a partner of the same level, but at other times with someone more mature in the faith acting as a mentor. Indeed ‘The Training’ is a better title than ‘The Teaching’, as the Didache represents a form of apprenticeship! Crucially, the mentor was not offering his thoughts on these matters, but passing on instructions that he had previously received and was also living out.

The Didache also seems to be for both male and female disciples. Specifically female issues are addressed, and the novice is addressed as ‘my child’, not ‘my son’.

Flow of Topics

Some believe the Didache was composed in stages, with the first section, called ‘The Two Ways’, existing in some form before being incorporated into the Didache. Nevertheless, as a whole it displays a unity across its structure, with a flow of topics which may indicate a comprehensive step-by-step programme for Gentile converts to become full disciples. The layout allows the recipient to progress slowly from introductory material to more complex rituals of daily living and community.

Though there are no separate headings, the content clearly divides into sections or tractates. Phrases or topic sentences are repeated to signal the beginning of new portions and summary statements are used to bring blocks of material to a close. These linguistic clues suggest the following four sections (though some split the third into two parts, making five in total):

Section 1 refers to two ‘ways’: the Way of Life and the Way of Death. These two paths would have already been well-known from Scripture (e.g. Psalm 1) and the teaching of Jesus. The Way of Life concerns one’s relationship with God as well as one’s relationships with other people.

Much of this reflects the Torah and the Decalogue, but the Didache contains a noticeable emphasis on how Gentile believers needed to live within the Roman world. In particular, it contains new prohibitions pertaining to what they would encounter in Roman society. Overall, the Didache represents an interesting adaptation of the Torah to take into account the circumstances that these converts would face.

The Didache represents an interesting adaptation of the Torah to take into account the circumstances that new Gentile converts would face in the Roman world.

Section 2 provides regulations for eating, baptising, fasting and praying. The chapter on food is very short and simple, and covers meat offered to idols. The next chapter, on baptism, shows a preference for baptising in flowing water, although exceptions are allowed if this is not available. Baptism is to be done in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and was to mark a clear turning-point in life, including the breaking of previous social bonds (even those within a family if necessary), as through baptism the convert was now joining a new family.

Fasting was to be undertaken before baptism and the next chapter indicates that in general a fast should be made twice a week, as within the Jewish tradition, though on different days from the Jews! This chapter also contains short injunctions on prayer, including use of the Lord’s Prayer.

The next two chapters contain the blessings to be made before and after a meal, especially the eucharist which was a full meal within the context of a family. Again, Jewish traditions are preserved here.

Warnings and Hope

Section three contains regulations for hospitality and for testing various kinds of visitors, especially itinerant prophets. They are to be welcomed and even honoured, but their time spent in any one community must be limited. Warnings are given against those who seek money or extended hospitality, and of course their words had to be tested and match their conduct, which must have already made a favourable impression upon the community before their words are heard.

The Didache contains a lot of cautionary advice regarding prophets - something still needed today. It seems the new Christian communities had much to fear from abusive and wayward prophets. However, ample provision is also made for welcoming true prophets, who could even be rewarded – provided they didn’t ask (interestingly, there is no mention of the communities creating and sending out their own prophets to other places. However, they were to appoint their own local overseer, or episkopos, which at that time was an entirely secular word meaning someone charged with oversight. These men were not themselves teachers or prophets, but also had to be of good conduct and then similarly honoured)!

The Didache contains a lot of cautionary advice regarding prophets - something still needed today.

The final section is on the end times! What a refreshing change from the complexities and confusion we find today. Here is a short synopsis of apocalyptic warnings and a message of hope. The emphasis is upon the ‘not yet’ aspect of the Kingdom, the need for holiness in preparation for Jesus’ return, and warnings of false prophets and deceivers.

Finally, three signs of truth are mentioned that will appear at the end: the unfurling or opening of the sky, the sound of the trumpet and the resurrection of the just. Then the world will see the Lord coming upon the clouds. Perhaps this is all we need to know in advance!

Now you’ve heard of this important book, click here to read our reviews of three editions currently available to purchase.

Paul Luckraft reviews three different translations of the ancient text.

If you wish to purchase a copy of the Didache for yourself then here are three very different options that I have come across and can recommend.

I have used all three in my article on the Didache, and readily acknowledge their help in compiling it. Which you would prefer will depend upon the level of analysis and commentary you require, and how much you want to spend!

Owles’ Translation

The simplest option is a translation by R Joseph Owles (2014, 33 pages). Be warned: all you get is an English translation. There is no Greek text to go alongside it or commentary to explain it, though there is a single page of notes at the end.

However, it is well-formatted in a way that makes it easy to read and understand. If that is all you require, then this will suffice and may be the cheapest version you can find.

Owles’s translation is available on Amazon in paperback and Kindle forms.

Milavec’s Translation and Commentary

The next alternative is by seminary and university professor Aaron Milavec (2003, 114 pages), which starts with a very informative introduction. After this comes the Greek text with a side-by-side English translation (the Greek being on the left-hand page and the English on the right).

The remaining pages are mainly taken up with what is described as a brief commentary. Apparently, elsewhere, Milavec spent 15 years compiling a 1,000-page commentary, so he apologises that this one is neither exhaustive nor definitive! However, this briefer version (65 pages) will be more than sufficient for most readers.

The book also contains a bibliography and recommended electronic aids for further study of the Didache. Milavec provides several flowcharts showing the progression of various events, such as the key aspects of the Didache training, which might be of interest to some. The final few pages offer some considerations on the dating of the Didache and its dependence upon Matthew’s Gospel.

All in all, this is the edition that will be most suitable for those who want a bit more than just a basic translation, but don’t want to spend hours in further study.

The Milavec edition is available on Amazon in both paperback and Kindle forms.

Janicki’s ‘The Way of Life’ Version

If you want a book that will take you much deeper into all that the Didache offers, then The Way of Life by Toby Janicki is worth considering. Published in 2017 by the Vine of David, a publishing arm of Messianic ministry First Fruits of Zion, this is a hardback which will cost you more to obtain, especially as you may need to get it from the US.

This near 600-page volume contains a new translation (again, side-by-side with the Greek) and a very extensive commentary from a Messianic Jewish perspective. Indeed, it is described as the first commentary of this kind. Most Didache studies have been influenced by denominational church interpretations which did not value its Jewish context, so this book is a very worthwhile contribution to the whole Jewish roots movement.

One significant bonus is an appendix containing the Epistle of Barnabas which makes for a fascinating comparison with the Didache. Another appendix features the Oxyrhynchus Papyrus fragments. There is also a very full bibliography for the even-more-serious student!

Janicki’s ‘The Way of Life’ version is available in hardback form from FFOZ or from Amazon.com (both international shipping).

Bible-believers chased out of Britain for not keeping to the script

It is perhaps ironic that, on the approach to the 400^th anniversary of the Mayflower’s sailing in 1620,¹ the British nation is plunged into the same sort of fractious, volatile scenario that led to that great exodus of the faithful.

When, following the Elizabethan era, James I ascended the throne in 1603, he introduced a policy enforcing religious conformity which almost blew up in his face.

First, there was the unsuccessful ‘gunpowder plot’ through which Guy Fawkes and his fellow conspirators registered Catholic opposition to the new king with their attempt to reduce Parliament to rubble.

Then the Puritans and Separatists came in for the monarch’s ire. At a time of significant political and religious tension, he tried to steady the ship by ensuring that all his people followed the same pseudo-Protestant script.

Harrying Out the Faithful

As with the Catholics, he also saw the Puritans as potential enemies, warning that he would “harry them out of the land”.

And indeed his dire threat duly succeeded in driving out the so-called ‘Pilgrim Fathers’, who had inaugurated the Separatist Church on the borders of Yorkshire and north Nottinghamshire.

Like other Puritans, they were devout Christians who believed the Church needed purifying from ritualistic dross. But whereas the Puritans sought change from within, the Pilgrim Fathers were convinced such endeavour was a lost cause and that they needed to “come out from among them” (Isa 52:11).

But some were fined, others were imprisoned and the pressure of persecution eventually led, in 1608, to their escape to a more tolerant Holland.

In the 17^th Century, devout Christians were imprisoned, persecuted and driven out of the country.

James I, whose policy of religious conformity made life difficult for Puritans like the Pilgrim Fathers.Seeking Freedom

It was a further dozen years before they sailed for the New World in the Mayflower, the king having changed his mind and given them permission to establish a colony there.

And so these Christians laid the foundations of what was to become the greatest nation on earth, built firmly on the principles of the Bible that had been challenged back in England.

These courageous pioneers were thus used to loose us from the chains of slavery to religious conformity which saw communities forced to attend the state-recognised Church where ritual and dead orthodoxy reigned, and where the Bible was chained to the pulpit.

Those who sought to experience the vitality of New Testament Christianity with its emphasis on freedom of the Spirit and a personal relationship with God were deemed outcasts.

Back to the ‘Dark Ages’?

It seems we have come full circle. Faced with the ever-present threat of terrorism, along with aggressive lobbying of secular humanists, we are now urged to follow the politically correct script - or else.

The Bible has been jettisoned in favour of what is effectively cultural Marxism, commanding what is and is not permissible to say and do.

Politicians condemn Brunei for proposing draconian new laws on corporal and capital punishment, seen as a return to the ‘Dark Ages’. But we are hardly squeaky clean ourselves in the way we have driven a coach and horses through the Ten Commandments, seriously undermined marriage (which is designed to create safe boundaries for the protection of family life and society in general) and by proposing state-sponsored child abuse through the indoctrination of children as young as four with the idea that they can choose their gender.

I suppose, in a way, this is the natural outcome of the state-sanctioned massacre of nine million unborn babies over the past 50 years.

Today, we are all urged to follow the politically correct script – or else.

The Blame Game

When will we acknowledge our own guilt? When will we stop pointing a finger at other people’s sins and take the ‘plank’ out of our own eye?

Under the proposed ‘no-fault’ divorce law, adultery will no longer be regarded as a sin – not even legally. It is supremely ironic that in a culture in which we are encouraged to blame everyone else for our troubles at a cost of millions, we are about to be exonerated in a key area of life on which almost everything else depends – that is, marriage and the family.

It means that no-one will officially be to blame for break-ups which will have caused untold heartbreak in countless homes. If we are no longer to be held responsible for solemn vows we have made in front of witnesses, what hope do we have of carrying out honest business in the wider world, or of being trusted by others?

What sort of spineless adults will emerge from witnessing their parents split at the drop of a hat? Throwing your toys out of the pram is surely an indulgence reserved for babies who are subsequently disciplined to consider the wider effects of their tantrums.

Shirking Responsibility

New housing estates cannot be built fast enough to keep up with the ever-increasing number of people who no longer know how to live with one another. It’s surely time we encouraged people to take responsibility for their actions.

Instead of honouring role models of commitment to family life, we fawn over celebrities and sportsmen who become the heroes we worship even though, as in some recent high-profile cases, they have set a shocking example of leadership in the home.

On the other hand, rugby stars soon get knocked off their pedestals when they express Christian beliefs on the subject, as did multiple Wimbledon champion Margaret Court.

It’s surely time we encouraged people to take responsibility for their actions rather than resorting to the default position of blaming someone else.

The Way of Escape

The fact is, there is always someone to blame – not just for break-ups, but for the mess we get ourselves in every day, including the Brexit botch-up. That is why Jesus came – to set us free from the burden of brokenness, guilt and regret, and give us new hope, especially with broken relationships.

As we celebrate Easter, we remember that Jesus became our Passover Lamb who frees us from sin through his blood shed on the Cross, prefigured in Egypt 1,500 years earlier by the freedom from slavery of the Jews who marked their doorposts with the blood of a sacrificial lamb.

What Jesus has done for us can be likened to the action of a First World War chaplain who, when asked for prayer by an officer who was about to embark on a dangerous mission into ‘no man’s land’, said he would do more than that – he would go with him. And when a shell exploded near the two men, the chaplain threw himself on the officer and died in his place.²

Offer of Peace

Do not follow the politically correct script. When ancient Israel disobeyed the Lord’s commands, the Prophet Isaiah warned them that “there is no peace for the wicked” (Isa 48:22). But there is peace - and forgiveness, and life - with Jesus!

References

1 Find out more on the Mayflower 400 website.

2 CWR’s Every Day with Jesus, 15 April 2019.

Paul Luckraft reviews ‘Biblical Church’ by Beresford Job (Bethany Publishing, 2007).

This excellent book challenges the traditional way that Christians do ‘church’, and explains what should be in place instead. The author aims to show that the church-going practices Christians generally observe are based upon teachings that have little or nothing to do with the Bible. Rather, they originated with men who led the Church after the Apostles were dead and the writings of the New Testament had been completed.

Though now over ten years old, this remains another useful resource for Christians who are currently ‘out of church’ – or who are seeking to rethink their current approach to church.

Delving into Ecclesiastical History

The book is in three parts. The first, called Traditions, starts by reviewing the Jewish ‘traditions of the elders’, which Jesus opposed. The author draws heavily on the teaching of others in these early chapters and the material may be familiar to many, but it forms a necessary background to his argument: that we have made the same mistakes, by building our own church traditions.

In chapters 4 and 5, Job looks in detail at the traditions of the early ‘Church Fathers’. He focuses on six from the two centuries after the Apostles: Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Cyprian of Carthage. Job is clear that they didn’t get everything wrong; in fact, he praises them for spreading the good news and preserving the truth of the Gospel in the face of heresy. For this they deserve honour and respect.

But Job does take issue with the church practices they introduced, which stemmed from a fundamental flaw regarding leadership. By introducing a clergy/laity divide, they created a new priesthood and layers of hierarchy which led to further errors.

This new system of ecclesiastical power and authority made it inevitable that any teachings introduced from the top would be readily accepted - whether in line with Scripture or not. In time, without the necessary input from Scripture, it was unavoidable that the Church would morph into a human organisation you could join, rather than a living organism - Christ’s Body.

Job traces how over several centuries, the Church morphed from a living organism – Christ’s Body – into a human organisation.

Job’s revealing analysis of modern-day church is summarised helpfully with a ‘Not-To-Do’ list: things which believers unquestioningly accept but which actively go against Scripture (p100).

In Chapter 8, he considers common objections to his argument: God still seems to bless such churches. The Holy Spirit is still at work. So why cause trouble and upset people? Here the author offers an honest assessment of these questions, but remains adamant that the status quo means we are missing out on God’s best!

Discovering Biblical Church

Part Two, entitled Biblical Church, is more positive in outlook and considers in detail what biblical church should look like. The author repeatedly stresses that he is not drawing a contrast between true and false churches, but between biblical and unbiblical practices.

He highlights four key areas that, for him, make up the minimum for a biblical church:

• Leadership should reflect that in Acts, with elders as overseers, not a ruling hierarchy;
  
• Home meetings are best for developing fellowship and deep relationships;
• Worship should be led by the Spirit and reflect the unity of the Body of Christ, and
  
• The Lord’s Supper should be celebrated with a proper meal, not just a quick snack of tokens.
  

Like Steve Maltz’s work on Hebraic church, Job emphasises function over form. Get the function right and the correct form of church practice will emerge.

Job acknowledges that biblical churches are not guaranteed to be problem-free. They can still be unloving or undisciplined. But if they have the right ‘shape’ then there is greater opportunity for the Lord to change people.
The author closes Part Two with a chapter entitled ‘What the Experts Say’. He wants to show that all he has been proposing is not just his opinion but is backed up by theologians.

The author repeatedly stresses that he is not drawing a contrast between true and false churches, but between biblical and unbiblical practices.

What to Do?

Part Three brings something new and special to the growing debate on ‘out of church’ Christianity: If you do want to change, how do you go about it?

Job offers many pieces of good advice and some sound ground-rules, drawing on his own experience and testimony. For those who end up leaving their current churches, he insists there is no need for unpleasantness and advises on how to leave peacefully, retaining bonds of fellowship with those who remain. He also stresses that changing to meeting in a home may not itself be the answer – and that any attempt to start up a new form of church should be preceded by and birthed in prayer. Seeking the Lord, and asking what he wants, is vital.

Job is down-to-earth and practical, not romantic: he explains that for Christians wanting to pursue radical transformation in their church practice, it is important to take it slowly and learn to walk before you can run, learning to listen to others and growing in patience.

His list of ‘Dos and Don’ts’ is particular useful, as are his FAQs and chapter of advice on how to look for outside help (however, despite its good general suggestions this has been removed from the Kindle version since its mentions of specific people are now out of date). The key, he suggests, is to seek out those with maturity and a strong sense of morality: just being well-meaning or having a ‘ministry’ may not be enough to guarantee a good start-up or later growth.

This book is a worthwhile addition to the growing literature on ‘alternative’ forms of church that seek greater fidelity to Scripture. Nobody is claiming to have published the final word on this issue, but this book will undoubtedly be a worthwhile, thought-provoking addition to the shelves of anyone in a quandary over it.

‘Biblical Church’ (288 pages, paperback) is available from Amazon for £8.96. Also on Amazon Kindle. Find out more at www.house-church.org.