Rev Ian Farley reviews 'Christianity: A Complete Introduction', by John Young and Greg Hoyland (2016, RRP £14.99)

Although published this year, purchasers will want to note that this is an updated version of a 20-year-old book, part of the Teach Yourself series. The text is very clear and well laid out. There is a good introduction and suggestion of how to use the book. After each section there are examples of further reading, most of which are books published since 2000.

A Complete Introduction?

There are four parts to the work: Jesus and the Bible, Beliefs (sacraments, prayer, spirituality), History and Today's World. In theory readers could start at any section that interested them, although the authors do encourage everyone to read the 'Jesus' section first.

Some readers may consider there to be imbalances in the coverage: for instance, there are ten pages on textual criticism, form criticism, redaction criticism and non-canonical books of the Bible, but only one page on the issue of inspiration. There are two pages on Anglicanism but only 13 lines on Pentecostalism. These divergences, however, highlight that the authors go to great pains to be descriptive without being resolving. They do not take sides on what many would take to be supremely important matters.

This does not mean they say nothing: they play down hell; they are very circumspect on the phrase 'born again'; there is no questioning of the Christian Year; Creationist viewpoints are not included in the review of resolving the tension between science and faith; the designated important books of the New Testament are the four Gospels, there is just one sentence on Paul and justification by faith- Romans is not mentioned. On the other hand, the different understandings of both baptism and the Lord's Supper are fairly represented.

A Difficult Task...

It is very difficult to compact the whole of Christian history into one quarter of one volume. Purchasers would do well to register that the goal is to elucidate the differences that might appear to someone who has really no knowledge of churches today. As a one-volume work this book may be worthwhile in this context, and it is easy to read. However, Christian buyers looking to introduce a non-Christian friend to the faith may prefer to look for four shorter but more specific books dealing with the topics separately and from a confessional angle.

Christianity: A Complete Introduction (368 pages) is available in Christian bookshops and from Amazon. Also available as an e-book.

Rachel Tingle reviews 'The Mission of God: A Manifesto of Hope for Society' by Dr Joe Boot (Wilberforce Publications, 2016)

Since the 1960s Britain has seen a remarkable change in its culture and laws (as have many other countries in the West). Where once abortion and homosexual practice were outlawed, divorce was difficult, and sex outside marriage was frowned upon, we now kill the unborn child when convenient, create human embryos at will, and sex or marriage with whom and whenever is simply a matter of lifestyle choice. It is those Christians who protest that any of this is 'wrong' who may find themselves outside the law.

How did this extraordinary shift come about? Where is it likely to lead? And is there any hope for an alternative, more Godly, future? These are amongst the questions that British apologist, evangelist and theologian, Dr Joe Boot, sets out to discuss.

New Puritanism?

It has to be admitted at the outset that this book will not appeal to everyone. In the first place, at more than 600 pages, it is a long and complex work that requires a real commitment of time and intellectual energy.

Second, some readers (like myself) will disagree with its theological underpinnings, which are explicitly Calvinistic, including the view that Jesus' return will not be until after the establishment of his Kingdom on earth ('post-millennialism'). Indeed, this is Boot's cause for hope and his definition of the 'mission of God' - the establishment of "the kingdom and reign of God in the earth by his Spirit, through law and gospel" (p26).

This, he says, was the vision and motivating force of the Puritans of the English Commonwealth under Cromwell. For this reason, Joe Boot calls himself a 'new Puritan' and draws on the history of that period, as well as that of the similarly-motivated early settlers in America and Canada (where he now lives). He also draws on the extensive work of the 20^th Century American theologian, the late Rousas Rushdoony, who insisted that biblical law should be taken far more seriously than it is today, and that it has abiding validity in every sphere of life — the individual, family, church and wider society (referred to as 'theonomy').

Britain has seen a remarkable change in its culture and laws, but how did this extraordinary shift come about – where does it lead – and is there any hope for the future?

The Western Abandonment of God's Law

The first part of this book discusses God's law in detail, and attempts to explain why, in recent years, we have moved away from it. Boot gives a number of reasons, the primary one of which is the failure of the Church to integrate faith into every aspect of life and thought. He accuses the Church of 'dualism', separating life into the sacred and secular, personal and public - one part for ourselves and the other for God. Confused believers, he says, have sought retreat and escape from the world, rather than seeking to redeem it.

He blames this partly (and in my opinion, unfairly) on pre-millennialism: pessimistic believers expect no transformation of society before the Second Coming and so take no action to change it. Secondly, he blames it on 'spiritual amnesia'. In a fascinating discussion, drawing on the work of legal experts in Britain and America, Boot argues that the church has forgotten the degree to which the legal systems of the West were rooted in biblical law, the influence growing stronger after the Protestant Reformation. Legal principles were drawn not just from the Ten Commandments, but also the body of case law to be found in the Old Testament.

Thirdly, Boot argues, the Church has become 'antinomian' — by concentrating on grace it has overlooked the importance of biblical law. Boot argues that the work of salvation through Jesus' death on the cross did not replace the relevance for our lives of Old Testament case law, only the ceremonial law connected with Temple worship. We might sum up this relevant law as God's eternal moral law, referred to by Boot as God's 'justice'.

Boot draws on the work of American theologian Rousas Rushdoony, who insisted that biblical law has abiding validity in every sphere of life.

Even those evangelicals who do make an appeal to God's justice, he says, misunderstand it and tend to concentrate on the unbiblical concept of 'social' or 'distributive' justice - essentially a redistribution of goods by a coercive state to create equality. So some of them misuse the concept of the 'Kingdom of God' to argue for an essentially Marxist vision of society.

He argues, instead, that to the Puritans God's justice meant "receiving what one was due under God, not absolute equality where everyone gets the same as everyone else". Although he recognises the demands in the Old Testament to show love and care to one's needy neighbour, he argues these needs would be minimised if everyone were living a Godly life, and that, in any case, such needs should be met through the tithe, not coercive taxation and an over-extended welfare state.

Building a Theocracy?

Many will criticise these views on the grounds that they would involve establishing a theocracy, which might impose biblical law upon an unbelieving society. Boot insists that is a misunderstanding: that the adoption of biblical law must only be in response to a society which wants it, and that can only come about once there has been prior successful evangelisation.

In any case, Boot argues, the application of God's law must start first in the life of the individual, then the family (the building block of society), and only later in wider society.

Part 2 of this book looks at the implications of this in the life of the Church, the family and for education. He argues that the institutional Church should not be inward-looking but, rather, should be a "servant institution that equips, empowers and sends out every Christian in term of God's glorious kingdom purposes". Education in the whole of God's word, he says, is crucial and for that reason (again like Rushdoony who has been very influential in America in this respect) he is a strong proponent of Christian schools and home schooling.

Boot accuses the Church of 'dualism', separating life into the sacred and secular, personal and public - one part for ourselves and the other for God.

Is it Realistic?

All of this, of course, runs so counter to our prevailing culture that it will seem outrageous to many, including some Christians. Nevertheless, I learnt much from this book that made me think, and think hard, about the continued need to fight for God's moral law in all of society. Even though I doubt we will establish the Kingdom, we should continue to work as if we can.

You can buy 'The Mission of God' (682 pages, £36.99 HB; £15.99 PB) by clicking this link.

Clifford Denton discusses the origins of 'Replacement Theology' and its impacts on Christian thinking.

So far in this series, we have seen how Christianity's Hebraic heritage came under attack right from the first years after Jesus and his apostles, and we have considered how this attack developed up to the fall of Israel under Rome. By this point, the ground had been prepared for the Christian Church to move away from its roots even further as time went on, and as theological ideas developed that denied its links with Israel and the Jews.

Blessings but no Curses

This eventually led many Christians to consider that God had now finished with Israel and replaced it with a new body called the Church, which would receive all the covenant blessings promised to Israel but without fear of the curses. In this study we will review the ideas behind this 'Replacement Theology' and consider its origins.

Christians and Jews eventually became so separated that many Christians began to consider themselves Israel's replacement in God's eyes.

70 AD: Judgment Day?

When Israel fell under the Romans, it became possible for Christians in the Gentile world to declare this as the final judgment of God on the Jewish nation. They could argue that Jesus had offered the gift of salvation to all of Israel and, following this, the early Apostles had witnessed to his sacrificial death and resurrection for sufficient time to give the nation its full opportunity for repentance.

To witness the terrible fate of Israel under Rome and then the dispersion of Jews to foreign lands would seem adequate evidence for this view. Add to this the Greek philosophical mindset prevalent among Gentile communities (more on this next week), and the scriptures themselves could be re-interpreted as if God had turned his attention to a people who had long been neglected and whose time had now come.

'Natural Israel' becomes 'Spiritual Israel'

Thus the idea that Israel was now to be replaced by a new body was established. The idea of 'Spiritual Israel' replacing 'natural Israel' began to take hold, so that even Old Testament mentions of Israel were re-interpreted by some Christian theologians in terms of the Church in the Gentile world, except that Jesus had now taken away the curse of the law, leaving only blessings for 'the Church'.

When Israel fell under the Romans, Gentile Christians declared this the final judgment of God on the Jewish nation. The idea that 'natural' Israel was now to be replaced by 'spiritual' Israel took hold.

With this view, Galatians 3:10-14 can be taken out of context:

Christ has redeemed us from the curse of the law, having become a curse for us (for it is written, 'Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree'), that the blessing of Abraham might come upon the Gentiles in Christ Jesus, that we might receive the promise of the Spirit through faith. (Gal 3:13-14)

Also, taking a single verse out of context, Matthew 21:43 could be (wrongly) interpreted as saying that now the 'nation' that was to replace Israel was this new body of people drawn from the Gentile world and known as 'the Church':

Therefore I tell you that the kingdom of God will be taken away from you and given to a people who will produce its fruit. (Matt 21:43)

With this mindset, even Romans 11 (where Paul speaks of a remnant of Israel being saved) can be re-interpreted as fulfilled by the early disciples and so no longer relevant. Paul speaks of himself as being of the tribe of Israel, seemingly confirming his point that God had not forgotten individuals from Israel - providing they become 'Christians' (and of course there were many other Jews who did believe in Jesus at the time of Paul). Thus a view can be formed that God did not forget his people in confirmation of Romans 11:1-5, but fulfilled it in Paul's day.

For those who see a new body ('the Church') as replacing Israel, the grafting of Romans 11 becomes about grafting into the new, predominantly Gentile Church, rather than into the covenant family that existed before the call to the Gentiles.

Christ the End of the Law

Romans 10:4 can also be read in terms of Replacement Theology, seeing 'end' as 'put an end to':

For Christ is the end of the law for righteousness to everyone who believes.

However, this verse means that those who look forward to the coming Messiah (as Abraham, Isaac and Jacob did) perceive him as fulfilling the purposes of the Covenant given to Israel. He is in view as through a telescope. He is the end purpose of the Torah, its fulfilment, within the continuity of biblical history.

Christ is the end of the law not because he finishes it, but because he fulfils it.

Those who have adopted the mindset that a new body has replaced Israel read this Scripture as meaning that Jesus Christ put an end to the promise to Israel in order to begin a new thing, rather than to enable, through his sacrificial death, the promise to Abraham. If, again, the 'New Covenant' is seen as a complete replacement of the 'Old Covenant', in every way, then this also adds to the theory that Israel has been replaced by a new thing: 'the Church'.

Already-existing Body

The truth is that Gentiles were called into an already-existing body, by the same faith that Abraham and all his children have.

However, errors emerge when Scripture is read through biased mindsets and false pre-conceptions that have formed in the Christian Church. It is all too easy to take this position, especially if we do not develop a balanced view from the whole of Scripture. In turn, Replacement Theology fuels anti-Semitism if it is thought that God's will is to punish the Jews.

Replacement Theology is rampant and widely accepted in the Church today but its traditions, thought patterns and logics began long ago. We will consider this in the next study, quoting briefly from the writings of two of the 'Church Fathers', Justin Martyr and Origen, to illustrate the point.

Gentiles are called into an already-existing body, by the same faith that Abraham had.

For Reflection and Comment

Read the scriptures referenced in this study, with the mindset of inclusion of believing Gentiles into the Israel of God, rather than a rejection of Israel and total replacement of Israel with an entirely new community of faith. Note the wording of Jeremiah 31:27-37.

Can you find scriptures to correct the error of Replacement Theology that the Church inherits all Israel's blessings and none of its curses?

Next time: Replacement Theology Part 2.

'End-time Survivor', by Neil Turner (Oxford e-books, 2013, 398 pages), available on Amazon for £22.18 (hardback) or £9 (Kindle Edition)

This relatively recent book is an excellent resource for anyone looking to build up their understanding of the complexities of End-Time theology. The subtitle - "A practical handbook for overcomers in the last days" - describes its aim perfectly and it certainly achieves this objective.

The author recognises that as well as being informative there is a need to offer practical advice, especially for younger people who may have to be those end-time overcomers. He is aware that each generation has the responsibility to prepare the next for whatever might happen.

25 Years of Research

The book took 5 years to write and is the result of 25 years of research into all that Scripture teaches on the last days and the return of Christ. As a handbook it accompanies a course that the author has also put together over this time, called the Omega Programme, but it can equally be used very effectively as a personal study guide. The fact that it is the product of an oft-repeated course prepared over a long period means that it is tried and tested. But one of its most impressive features is that it does not come across merely as a course handbook. It has been well-written and thought through for the general reader. Here is a dedicated and skilful teacher who can present his material in whatever format is required.

This book is accompanies a tried and tested course on the subject – but is more than a mere course handbook.

The style is pleasant, easy-going and immediate. The author does not lecture but presents his ideas with sufficient modesty and humility. He tells you when he is speculating or less sure but we are always confident he has studied it thoroughly himself first. However, he does expect you to do some of the work yourself. You are required to think things through for yourself and only by putting in sufficient time and effort will you get the most out of this book. This is perhaps where the course handbook element comes through most strongly.

Theological Approach

His theological approach is a very valid one and offers a clear guide through the whole topic. He sensibly begins with the teachings of Jesus in the gospel, calling it the 'Spine of Biblical Prophecy'. After establishing this "firm foundation for our prophetic panorama" (p85), he sets out to tackle the whole of the book of Revelation. In fact he provides the full text of Revelation, set out in a distinctive and helpful way (pp92-133). Given the length and complexity of Revelation this is a very useful preliminary for the analysis that follows and in itself makes this book a worthwhile addition to other similar study materials.

Clearly there is no single easy way through the maze of texts and topics on the last days but the author has an approach which is as good as any and better than many. All you expect is there; he does not shirk any aspect. If it remains complicated at times (for instance, Revelation) that's because inevitably it is and cannot be over-simplified without losing something important.

Standout Chapters

Two other chapters are worth a special mention. One is an excellent and thorough analysis of life in the modern world and the trends that seem to be leading to the Tribulation (Ch 6). The other is on Israel, clearly important to God's future plans (Ch 7). There is a lot of Old Testament background on Israel here, perhaps more than necessary for readers who are already Biblically literate, but for anyone approaching end-time theology without this understanding it certainly fills a vital gap.

This book is definitely worth the space on your shelf and the money from your pocket.

Overall this is a well-designed book. The print is large and easy to read, and there are plenty of very useful and colourful charts and pictures (though some pictures seem a little irrelevant and the Word Clouds more gimmicky than informative). The bibliography is rather brief, and there is no index, either topical or Biblical, but there is a helpful key at the front (p17) explaining how to use the book. It comes in hardback form and given its inevitable length this makes it rather heavy and expensive. Nevertheless it is definitely worth the space on your shelf and the money from your pocket.

Clifford Denton continues to examine the early separation between Christianity and Judaism, looking at their theological conflicts.

One of the main factors contributing to the early rift between the Christian Church and the Jewish community was a theological conflict that emerged as biblical prophecies were interpreted through the revelation of Jesus as the expected Messiah. We will consider here the beginnings of this theological separation.

Parting of the Ways

In Chapter 4 of Our Father Abraham, Marvin Wilson considers the parting of the Church from the Synagogue. This parting of the ways was a gradual process over many centuries, but the beginnings are found in the biblical account. In Acts 5:40 we read, "They called the apostles in and had them flogged. Then they ordered them not to speak in the name of Jesus, and let them go." Wilson writes:

The Jerusalem Council (Acts 15)...was an alpine event. Its decision would have profound implications for both Church and Synagogue in the years to come. By calling this council, the Church took a clear stand on the issue of gentile circumcision (Acts 15:5, 28-29). This most ancient of all covenant rites would not be a prerequisite to join the still fledgling messianic community which had rapidly expanded into the gentile world. (p52)

In later years, Christian theology would be the subject of many councils, and the creeds of the Christian Church would be crafted. New divisions would begin to occur in the Christian Church itself as various denominations and sects emerged. It was inevitable, however, that the separation of Christians from the sects of Judaism would occur in the early days of the Apostles.

Dr Wilson continues:

The picture of the Church which we are able to draw at this mid-century juncture is composite. It comprised essentially three main groups. One segment was made up of traditionalists from the circumcision party. They were conservative Jewish believers, most likely from the sect of the Pharisees, and were closely tied to Temple worship and Jewish Law...the Ebionite sect probably represented the remnants of this movement, a group which did not die out until the fourth century. A second distinguishable group was the free-thinking Hellenistic party. The Hellenists had one foot planted in the turf of Judaism.

But the other, more firmly set in Greek soil, caused this group to lean to the West. A third segment held to a middle or mainstream position. It reflected the thinking of the council and presumably also the majority of the Jerusalem church (see Acts 15:22). Some of its leading voices were James, Peter ("an apostle to the Jews"), and Paul ("an apostle to the Gentiles" cf. Gal. 2:8). Through the guidance of the Holy Spirit (Acts 15:28), this influential group sought to be open to Gentiles and yet sensitive to the Jews. (emphasis added)

The Christian movement began so powerfully, and the zeal of the early believers was so great, that it could not avoid drawing attention to itself. It was recognised as a heretical sect of Judaism and so caused response from the leaders of the Jewish community who foresaw coming division. The followers of Jesus were seen as emerging from the background of Jewish life, interpreting their message from the Hebrew Scriptures, continuing to visit the Temple, preaching their message among the Jews and interpreting their faith out of Jewish symbols and traditions.

Thus the first points of division can be seen in the Bible itself, before ever a Church Council emerged in later generations.

Theological Issues

Church creeds and doctrines crystallised over the centuries as a response to many issues of contending for the faith, but this began with the Apostles. We have already mentioned the meeting in Jerusalem (Acts 15) that has come to be known as the Council of Jerusalem. As further issues came up, so discussions took place and positions were taken. The New Testament writings introduced many statements of faith, even before systematic creeds were drawn up. Paul highlighted issues of doctrine that had to be made clear as congregations in the Gentile world faced various questions. Paul's writings, in themselves, marked a separation point from other forms of Judaism.

The New Testament writings introduced many statements of faith before systematic Christian creeds were ever drawn up.

In the Introduction to the Mishnah (translated by Danby, OUP, 1933) is an interesting confirmation of this separation based on the writings of the New Testament. The sects of Judaism codified the oral traditions while the Christian Church received the New Testament, signifying the theological parting of the ways. The Mishnah became the foundation of the Talmud and the New Testament became the basis of future creeds of the Christian Church:

The Mishnah may be defined as a deposit of four centuries of Jewish religious and cultural activity in Palestine, beginning at some uncertain date (possibly during the earlier half of the second century B.C.) and ending with the close of the second century A.D. The object of this activity was the preservation, cultivation, and application to life of 'the Law' (Torah), in the form in which many generations of like-minded Jewish religious leaders had learned to understand this Law. These leaders were known in turn by the names Soferim ('Scribes') and Tannaim (lit. 'repeaters', teachers of the Oral Law).

The latter taught the religious system of the Pharisees as opposed to that of the Sadducees. Until the destruction of the Second Temple in A.D. 70 they had counted as one only among the schools of thought which played a part in Jewish national and religious life; after the Destruction they took the position, naturally and almost immediately, of sole and undisputed leaders of such Jewish life as survived. Judaism as it has continued since is, if not their creation, at least a faith and a religious institution largely of their fashioning; and the Mishnah is the authoritative record of their labour. Thus it comes about that while Judaism and Christianity alike venerate the Old Testament as canonical Scripture, the Mishnah marks the passage to Judaism as definitely as the New Testament marks the passage to Christianity. (emphasis added)

First Century: the Separation Begins

The Apostolic Council of Jerusalem was around 49 AD. 1 and 2 Corinthians was written around 54-55 AD, Romans around 55 AD and Hebrews in the 60s. Peter and Paul's martyrdoms were around 64 AD. Matthew was written in the 60s, Revelation in the late 80s or early 90s. Thus the date of the destruction of the Temple (70 AD) is embedded in the dates surrounding the significant writings and formation of the doctrines of the Christian Church.

Already the ministry of Jesus had been pivotal in the Jewish world, his crucifixion being around 30 AD. His followers then became living witnesses to their faith and so the Christian community was noticeable in the world of Judaism, it being inevitable that their beliefs would be scrutinised by the leaders of the Jewish community.

The destruction of the Temple in 70 AD is embedded in the dates surrounding the New Testament writings, and followed the pivotal ministry of Jesus, so the Christian community was already well-known in the world of Judaism.

Other early Christian writings give indications of the way theological ideas began to form among believers. For example, around 95 AD Clement, secretary of the Roman Church, wrote to the Corinthian congregation. He viewed this congregation as what we might consider to be on a par with the Essene community of Qumran, fulfilling what was prefigured in the Old Testament. Later, in his second letter, we see him treat Paul's writings on an equal footing to the Scriptures of the Old Testament. Others such as Ignatius of Antioch have left letters which build up clues to the early theology of the Christian Church.

Statement of Faith

What emerged is called the kerygma. It is a Greek word meaning, 'proclamation, announcement, preaching'. CH Dodd (The Apostolic Preaching, 1936), and others, examined early Christian writings to discover the core of Christian preaching in the early days of the Apostles. The ancient kerygma as summarised by Dodd from Peter's speeches in Acts was:

1. The Age of Fulfillment has dawned, the 'latter days' foretold by the prophets.
2. This has taken place through the birth, life, ministry, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
3. By virtue of his resurrection Jesus has been exalted at the right hand of God as Messianic head of the new Israel.
4. The Holy Spirit in the church is the sign of Christ's present power and glory.
5. The Messianic Age will reach its consummation in the return of Christ.
6. An appeal is made for repentance with the offer of forgiveness, the Holy Spirit, and salvation.

Jesus Christ, of course, was the center of this ancient kerygma. The cross and resurrection are crucial to the kerygmatic preaching of Jesus. Another useful summary is found in Chronological Charts of the New Testament (Zondervan, 1981, p120) by H Wayne House:

1. The promises by God made in the Old Testament have now been fulfilled with the coming of Jesus the Messiah (Acts 2:30; 3:19,24; 10:43; 26:6-7, 22; Rom 1:2-4; 1 Tim 3:16; Heb 1:1-2; 1 Pet 1:10-12, 2 Pet 1:18-19).
2. Jesus was anointed by God at his baptism as Messiah (Acts 10:38).
3. Jesus began his ministry in Galilee after his baptism (Acts 10:37).
4. He conducted a beneficent ministry, doing good and performing mighty works by the power of God (Mark 10:45; Acts 2:22; 10:38).
5. The Messiah was crucified according to the purpose of God (Mark 10:45; John 3:16; Acts 2:23; 3:13-15, 18; 4:11; 10:39; 26:23; Rom 8:34; 1 Cor 1:17-18; 15:3; Gal 1:4; Heb 1:3; 1 Pet 1:2, 19; 3:18; 1 John 4:10).
6. He was raised from the dead and appeared to his disciples (Acts 2:24, 31-32; 3:15,26; 10:40-41; 17:31; 26:23; Rom 8:34; 10:9; 1 Cor 15:4-7, 12ff.; 1 Thess 1:10; 1 Tim 3:16; 1 Pet 1:2, 21; 3:18, 21).
7. Jesus was exalted by God and given the name 'Lord' (Acts 2:25-29, 33-36; 3:13; 10:36; Rom 8:34; 10:9; 1 Tim 3:16; Heb 1:3; 1 Pet 3:22).
8. He gave the Holy Spirit to form the new community of God (Acts 1:8; 2:14-18, 33, 38-39; 10:44-47; 1 Pet 1:12).
9. He will come again for judgment and the restoration of all things (Acts 3:20-21; 10:42; 17:31; 1 Cor 15:20-28; 1 Thess 1:10).
10. All who hear the message should repent and be baptised (Acts 2:21, 38; 3:19; 10:43, 47-48; 17:30; 26:20; Rom 1:17; 10:9; 1 Pet 3:21).

It was impossible for the differences in theology to go unnoticed as being a divergence from orthodox Judaism. Christianity, nevertheless, grew out of the Jewish background with common roots in the Tanakh, not as a new religion in the Gentile world, where it might have gone unnoticed. The centrality of Jesus the Messiah made it impossible for the Apostles to be silent and the fact that the oral traditions of Judaism (later codified as the Mishnah) made different emphasis, made it impossible for theological conflicts to be avoided.

It was impossible for Christianity to be ignored as a simple divergence from orthodox Judaism. The centrality of Jesus the Messiah made it impossible for the Apostles to be silent, and the difference between Christian doctrine and the Jewish oral traditions made theological conflict unavoidable.

Jewish Symbols

It was for the very reason that Christianity emerged from the background of Judaism that conflict occurred. On the one hand these are two branches of the same tree and, on the other hand, they are conflicting interpretations of the same Scriptures. On page 55 of Our Father Abraham, Dr Wilson presents Christianity as a radical reinterpretation of Jewish symbols and therefore ready to spark off reaction and potential parting of the ways:

The two Testaments exhibit strong continuity, but also a discontinuity. Many Old Testament institutions and themes are radically reinterpreted in the New Testament, often in ways – despite their foreshadowing – that the majority in New Testament times was unable to discern. In addition, the embodiment of the Torah in Jesus created a major tension. Jesus subordinated many of the central symbols of Judaism to himself, and the New Testament writers continued that subordination.

Thus, Jesus became the Temple (John 2:19-21) and the atoning sacrifice ("the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world" – John 1:29). At Passover the matzah, "unleavened bread," represented his body (Mark 14:22); likewise, the lamb sacrificed at Passover symbolized Jesus' sacrificial death (1 Corinthians 5:7). In addition, Jesus declared himself Lord of the Sabbath (Mark 2:27-28). He also distinguished the ritually clean from unclean (Mark 7:1-23). In sum, in early Jewish Christianity the "Sabbath, Temple, Law, sacrifices are christologically reinterpreted by the One who is greater than them all." (quoted from P. Richardson, Israel in the Apostolic Church, CUP, 1969). The overall effect was that the first-century Jewish community largely considered these teachings strange and antiritualistic, a threat to established religious beliefs of the day.

On the one hand, Christianity and Judaism are two branches of the same tree. On the other, they are radically conflicting interpretations of the same Scriptures.

For Reflection and Comment

How might the Christian Church, without compromising the Gospel, restore theological balance and heal the rift with Israel and the Jews?

Next time: Exclusion from the Synagogue.